Appendix I — Bibliography
Sources are listed in chapter order. Follow Cited in to return to the source’s context. Recommended reading is listed separately.
Entries retain the citation label when publication details are incomplete. Inclusion in this bibliography does not establish that a source supports every claim made about it.
Search results
- 100 Days MissionCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- 11,000 deathsCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- 1540 CommitteeCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- 189 States Parties and four Signatory StatesCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- 1975 Asilomar ConferenceCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- 1977 H1N1 re-emergenceCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- 1978 Birmingham smallpox outbreakCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- 2004 SARS Beijing outbreakCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 3)
- 2014 discovery of variola-labelled vialsCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- 2014 paper in eLifeCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- 2016 U.S. Intelligence Community Worldwide Threat AssessmentCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- 2018 horsepox synthesis paperCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- 2018 study by Kyrou et al. in Nature BiotechnologyCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- 2022 capstone exercise led by the Robert Koch InstituteCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- 2023 HHS guidanceCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology; DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2)
- 2023 preprintCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 1); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 2); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 3)
- 2024 DURC/PEPP policyCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- 2024 Science commentaryCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- 2025 GovAI reportCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; LLMs and Information Hazards; AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- 2025 guidanceCited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- 2025 RAND Delphi studyCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design; Further Reading and Resources
- 2025 RAND report on protecting biological materialsCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint; Further Reading and Resources
- 2025 Scale AI/SecureBio preprintCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- 2026 eighth sessionCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- 2026 Nature Methods proposal for the MIHCLE reporting standardCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- 2026 ninth sessionCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3)
- 3Blue1Brown’s neural network seriesRecommended in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- 42 participating countries and the European CommissionCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- 7 million confirmed deathsCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- 80,000 Hours Job BoardRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- 80,000 Hours PodcastRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- A 2022 WHO/World Bank report to the G20Cited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- a SARS outbreak in China traced back to a laboratoryCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- AAAS S&T Policy FellowshipRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- The Global Health Security Index is not predictive of coronavirus pandemic responses among Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development countriesEnoch J. Abbey. 2020. PLOS ONEjournal articleCited in: Executive Summary; What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); The Biological Threat Landscape
- Beyond sequence similarity: toward function-based screening of nucleic acid synthesisGary R. Abel Jr; Tessa Alexanian; Craig Bartling; et al. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- ABSA InternationalRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- accidentally shippedCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Evaluating AI-assisted customer verification for synthetic nucleic acid screeningAlejandro Acelas; Hanna Palya; Kevin Flyangolts; et al. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- AI and the Future of Medical Countermeasures to Protect Against Biological ThreatsAmesh A. Adalja. 2026. Open Forum Infectious Diseasesjournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Confronting risks of mirror lifeKatarzyna P. Adamala. 2024. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 3); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 4); The Future of Biosecurity; Glossary of Biosecurity Terms
- Developing a Risk-Scoring Tool for Artificial Intelligence-Enabled Biological Design: A Method to Assess the Risks of Using Artificial Intelligence to Modify Select Viral CapabilitiesAdeline E. Williams. 2026. RAND Corporation Research ReportCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence; Further Reading and Resources
- Society's Resilience to a Total Loss of AgricultureAdin Richards. 2025. arXiv preprintCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Africa CDC Nextstrain instanceCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
- Africa Pathogen Genomics Initiative (Africa PGI)Cited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 1); Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 2)
- Africa PGICited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- Africa PGICited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- AI Agent Standards InitiativeCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- AI-enabled medical countermeasure developmentCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- All Pandemic Hazards BillCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- AlphaFoldCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- AlphaFold 3’s biosecurity implicationsCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- AlphaFold/AlphaFold3Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- AlphaFold2Cited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- AlphaGenomeCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- America’s Living Library Act of 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Amodei, 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts; Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- anchored on LLM risks rather than foundation biological AI models (BAIMs)Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Andrej Karpathy’s tutorialsRecommended in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- ABC-Bench: An Agentic Bio-Capabilities Benchmark for BiosecurityAndrew Bo Liu. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Ansa BiotechnologiesCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- DNA Synthesis ProductsAnsa Biotechnologies. 2026. Ansa BiotechnologiesCited in: Executive Summary
- AnthraxCited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2)
- Anthrax lettersCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- Claude Opus 5 System CardAnthropic. 2026. AnthropicCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Improving Fable 5 SafeguardsAnthropic. 2026. AnthropicCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Responsible Scaling Policy Version 3.4Anthropic. 2026. AnthropicCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; LLMs and Information Hazards; Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio ConvergenceRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- Anthropic, 2025Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Anthropic, 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Anthropic, 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts; Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- anthropic.comRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Anthropic’s Constitutional AI preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- anti-Plasmodium effector genesCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- April 29, 2024 OSTP Framework for Nucleic Acid Synthesis ScreeningCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3)
- Frontier large language models and clinical recognition of Category A bioterrorism agents: a cross-sectional analysisRichard C. Armitage. 2026. Global Security: Health, Science and Policyjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Arms Control AssociationCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2)
- Arms Control AssociationCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- Arms Control AssociationCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 5); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 6); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 7); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 8)
- Arms Control AssociationCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 1); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 2)
- Armstrong et al. describe in the New England Journal of MedicineCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- ASMCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2)
- ASPRCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- ASPR TRACIECited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- attacks from natural outbreaksCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- AIxBio: Opportunities to Strengthen Health SecurityAurelia Attal-Juncqua; Anita Cicero; Alex Zhu; et al. 2026. Health Securityjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Attention Is All You NeedCited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- Aum ShinrikyoCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2); Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2)
- Australia GroupCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint; International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention; Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Australia Group Common Control ListsCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint; International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- automated event-based surveillanceCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Avsec et al., Nature, 2026Cited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Baker et al., 2025, preprintCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- BARDACited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)Recommended in: Further Reading and Resources; Building a Biosecurity Career
- Battelle, 2017Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- A system capable of verifiably and privately screening global DNA synthesisCarsten Baum; Jens Berlips; Walther Chen; et al. 2026. National Science Reviewjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Benchtop DNA synthesizersCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Bhasin, Flyangolts, et al., 2026, preprintCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 1); Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 2)
- Bhatt et al., 2026, preprintCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- Towards a Common Standard for Evaluating Frontier AI Safeguards Against Biological MisuseBhuvana Sudarshan. 2026. GovAI Technical ReportCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Biddle, The Intercept, January 2024Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- BioBricks RegistryCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2)
- biological program largely failedCited in: What Is Biosecurity?; The Biological Threat Landscape
- Biological weaponsCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Biological Weapons ConventionCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics; DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint; Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)Cited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); The Biological Threat Landscape; International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 5); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 6); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 7); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 8); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 9)Recommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- BiopreparatCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Biopreparat programCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- BioRisk Assessment Models (BioRAMs)Cited in: Laboratory Biosafety and BiosecurityRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL)Cited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- biosafety incidents occurCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- Biosafety.beCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3)
- BioSecure frameworkCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Biosecurity & Pandemic PreparednessRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources; Building a Biosecurity Career
- biosecurity analysesCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Biosecurity and BioterrorismRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Biosecurity CentralRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources; Building a Biosecurity Career
- Biosecurity CentralCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Biosecurity CentralCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Biosecurity Data Level (BDL) frameworkCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards; AI-Enabled Pathogen Design; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence; Glossary of Biosecurity Terms
- Biosecurity LawCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- Biosecurity Modernization and Innovation Act of 2026 (S. 3741)Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Biotechnology Research in an Age of TerrorismRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- Bioterrorism Rapid Response and Advanced Technology (BRRAT) laboratoryCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Laboratory-acquired infections and pathogen escapes worldwide between 2000 and 2021: a scoping reviewStuart D Blacksell; Sandhya Dhawan; Marina Kusumoto; et al. 2024. The Lancet Microbejournal articleCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- AI and biosecurity: The need for governanceDoni Bloomfield; Jaspreet Pannu; Alex W. Zhu; et al. 2024. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Glossary of Biosecurity Terms
- BlueDotCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 1); AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 2); AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 3)
- Blueprint Biosecurity, 2025Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Artificial intelligence, pharmaceutical development and dual-use research of concern: a call to actionChristopher Bobier; Daniel J Hurst; John Obeid. 2025. Journal of Medical Ethicsjournal articleCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Autonomous chemical research with large language modelsDaniil A. Boiko; Robert MacKnight; Ben Kline; et al. 2023. Naturejournal articleCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology; Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Boston UniversityCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- BotulismCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- BritannicaCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- Genome modelling and design across all domains of life with Evo 2Garyk Brixi; Matthew G. Durrant; Jerome Ku; et al. 2026. Naturejournal articleCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- BrucellosisCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Bulletin of the Atomic ScientistsCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Far-UVC light (222 nm) efficiently and safely inactivates airborne human coronavirusesManuela Buonanno; David Welch; Igor Shuryak; et al. 2020. Scientific Reportsjournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Buonanno et al., 2024Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Bureau BiosecurityCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) export controlCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- De novo Design of All-atom Biomolecular Interactions with RFdiffusion3Jasper Butcher. 2025. bioRxiv preprintpreprintCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- called the travel bans travel apartheidCited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- The changing economics of DNA synthesisRobert Carlson. 2009. Nature Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 3)
- Cartagena ProtocolCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Implementing emerging customer screening standards for nucleic acid synthesisSarah R. Carter; Lucas Boldrini; Tessa Alexanian. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Carter and Butchello, 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Category A agentsCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2); Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2); Pathogens of Concern (passage 3)Recommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- CBW EventsCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3)
- CDCCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- CDCCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- CDCCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 3)Recommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- CDC BMBLCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 4); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 5); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 6); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 7); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 8); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 9)
- CDC BMBLCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2)Recommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- CDC Influenza AntiviralsCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- CDC MMWR, 2024Cited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- CDC NWSS FAQCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- CDC reports 71 total human A(H5) cases in the U.S. since February 2024Cited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- CDC, January 2025Cited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- CDC, June 2026Cited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 3)
- cdc.govRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- CDC/NIOSH Certified Equipment ListCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- CDC/NIOSH GUVCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 3); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 4)
- CDC/NIOSH Hierarchy of ControlsCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- CDC/NIOSH PPECited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- CDC/NIOSH Ventilation FAQCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 3)
- CDC/NIOSH-approved respiratorsCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Center for AI Safety: Introduction to AI Safety, Ethics, and SocietyRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- CEPICited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- CFRCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6)
- Chandra et al., 2026, preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Chatham HouseRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Chemical Weapons ConventionCited in: Attribution and Biological ForensicsRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Chemistry WorldCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- LLM Novice Uplift on Dual-Use, In Silico Biology TasksChen Bo Calvin Zhang. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: Executive Summary; AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 1); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 2); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 3); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 4); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 3); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 4)
- Cheng et al., 2026Cited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- 10 big projects for reducing bio x-riskChris Bakerlee. 2026. Defenses in DepthCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- The Operational Risks of AI in Large-Scale Biological Attacks: Results of a Red-Team StudyChristopher A. Mouton. 2024. RAND Research ReportCited in: Executive Summary; AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals; AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 1); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 2); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 3); Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks; Further Reading and ResourcesRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- chytrid fungus (Scheele et al., 2019)Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- CIDRAPRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- CIDRAPCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 7); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 8); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 9); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 10)
- classroom exercise reported in a preprintCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; LLMs and Information Hazards
- Claude 3 Model CardCited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals; AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 1); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 2); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2)
- ClinicalTrials.gov, OCU500Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- Cloud Lab Security ConsortiumCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- cloud laboratoriesCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- CNASCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- CNN, February 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI)Cited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense; The Future of BiosecurityRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- COGR, August 2026Cited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- Collins, Science Studies, 1974Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- The Age of AI in the Life SciencesNational Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. National Academies PressCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2); AI for Biosecurity Defense; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Community Biology Biosafety HandbookCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2)
- Constitutional ClassifiersCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Convention on Biological DiversityCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Cornell EHSCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Council on Foreign RelationsRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Cyberbiosecurity Implementation in Laboratory Settings: A Scoping ReviewAlejandra Cova; Ming Ong; Leo Shih; et al. 2026. Applied Biosafetyjournal articleCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- COVID-19Cited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- Cyberbiosecurity in high-containment laboratoriesElizabeth Crawford; Adam Bobrow; Landy Sun; et al. 2023. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- CRISPR-Cas9 systemCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Critical Assessment of Protein Structure Prediction (CASP)Cited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- CSETRecommended in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; Building a Biosecurity Career
- csis.orgRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources; Building a Biosecurity Career
- Culture BiosciencesCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- The COVID-19 Pandemic and the $16 Trillion VirusDavid M. Cutler; Lawrence H. Summers. 2020. JAMAjournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Dawn Sturgess Inquiry reportCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- Debenedetti et al., 2024Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- December 2025 EOCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Decision 14/19 (2018)Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Decision 15/31 (2022)Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- decision tool in Annex 2Cited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- declared eradicated (1980)Cited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2)
- Measures to strengthen international biosafety and biosecurity practicesEtienne Decroly; Patrick Berche; Ali Asy; et al. 2026. PLOS Biologyjournal articleCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Deep Learning bookRecommended in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- DeepMind blogCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- deepmind.googleRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- DeepMind’s biosecurity analysisCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- Dettman et al., 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Dev et al., 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- DHSRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- DHS-commissioned RAND studyCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; Further Reading and Resources
- Diagne et al., Nature 2021Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- DNA ScriptCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- SYNTAX DNA Printing SystemDNA Script. 2026. DNA ScriptCited in: Executive Summary
- DoDRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Sovereignty, equity, solidarity: progress on the Global Health Emergency CorpsScott F Dowell; Christophe Schmachtel; Abdi Mahamud; et al. 2025. BMJ Global Healthjournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Discordant bioinformatic predictions of antimicrobial resistance from whole-genome sequencing data of bacterial isolates: an inter-laboratory studyRonan M. Doyle. 2020. Microbial Genomicsjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Dr. Bruce IvinsCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- DriveNetsCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Duelfer Report (2004)Cited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Far-UVC (222 nm) efficiently inactivates an airborne pathogen in a room-sized chamberEwan Eadie; Waseem Hiwar; Louise Fletcher; et al. 2022. Scientific Reportsjournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 3)
- EbolaCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2); Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2)
- Ecological modelingCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Assembling unregulated DNA segments bypasses synthesis screening: regulate fragments as select agentsRey Edison; Shay Toner; Kevin M. Esvelt. 2026. Nature Communicationsjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2)
- Contamination in Low Microbial Biomass Microbiome Studies: Issues and RecommendationsRaphael Eisenhofer; Jeremiah J. Minich; Clarisse Marotz; et al. 2019. Trends in Microbiologyjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Data, disease and diplomacy: GISAID's innovative contribution to global healthStefan Elbe; Gemma Buckland‐Merrett. 2017. Global Challengesjournal articleCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- ELBIRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources; Building a Biosecurity Career
- BioTIER: A Refusal Benchmark for Targeted Biological Risk MitigationEleanor M. Marshall. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Ellison et al., 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- EMBO ReportsRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Emerald Cloud LabCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology (passage 1); Cloud Labs and Automated Biology (passage 2)
- EO 14110Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- EO 14179Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- EPIWATCHCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- ESM3Cited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Essential Regulatory LaboratoriesCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Esvelt & Gemmell, PLOS Biology 2017Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2)
- ETC GroupCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- EU AI ActCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- EU dual-use itemsCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Regulation (EU) 2024/1689, Article 55European Parliament and Council. 2024. Official Journal of the European UnionCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Evo 2Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- EvolutionaryScale, 2024Cited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- evolved through distinct erasCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2)Recommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- Executive Order 14292 (May 5, 2025)Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 4)
- Expert-curated outbreak reportsCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 3)Recommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- fao.orgRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- FASCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 7); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 8); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 9); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 10)
- FASCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- FAS 1998Cited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- FBI Weapons of Mass Destruction DirectorateCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- FDACited in: Pathogens of Concern
- FDACited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- FDACited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- FDACited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- FDA Animal RuleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- FDA COVID-19 DrugsCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- FDA EUA FAQCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- FDA Safety CommunicationCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- FDA Smallpox PreparednessCited in: Pathogens of Concern; Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- Federal Select Agent ProgramCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Federation of American ScientistsCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Federation of American Scientists, citing UNSCOMCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Know your scientist: KYC as biosecurity infrastructureJonathan Feldman. 2026. Frontiers in Microbiologyjournal articleCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Feldman & Feldman, 2025, workshop paperCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 3)
- Florescu-Ciobotaru and Workman, August 2026Cited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- FluNet platformCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- Food and Agriculture Organization declared rinderpest eradicatedCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- forgotten vials of smallpoxCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- formally definedCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Fouchier et al., 2012Cited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 7)
- Fouchier et al., 2013Cited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2)
- Frontier Model ForumCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- FSAPCited in: Pathogens of Concern; Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3)
- funding pauseCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- Gain-of-function (GOF) researchCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- GAO, 2021Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- GAO-26-107338Cited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 4)
- GAO-26-107348Cited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- A real-time early warning system to anticipate respiratory disease outbreaks using transfer learningRaul Garrido-Garcia; Leonardo Clemente; Austin G. Meyer; et al. 2026. Nature Communicationsjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Gates, 2022Cited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- GBIRd (Genetic Biocontrol of Invasive Rodents)Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Geneva ProtocolCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2)
- GenspaceCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Georgetown UniversityRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources; Building a Biosecurity Career
- A multi-agent system for automating scientific discoveryAli E. Ghareeb; Benjamin Chang; Ludovico Mitchener; et al. 2026. Naturejournal articleCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Understanding biosafety practitioner perspectivesDavid R. Gillum; Christine Knight; Kathleen M. Vogel. 2025. Politics and the Life Sciencesjournal articleCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- GISAIDCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and GovernanceRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Global Guidance Framework for the Responsible Use of the Life SciencesRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- GlobalSecurity.orgCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- To do no harm — and the most good — with AI in health careCarey Beth Goldberg; Laura Adams; David Blumenthal; et al. 2024. Nature Medicinejournal articleCited in: Further Reading and Resources
- The Missing Dimension in Clinical AI: Making Hidden Values VisibleCarey Goldberg; Ran D. Balicer; Mamatha Bhat; et al. 2026. NEJM AIjournal articleCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Google DeepMind, Microsoft, and xAI signed agreementsCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- The International Health Regulations: The Governing Framework for Global Health SecurityLAWRENCE O. GOSTIN; REBECCA KATZ. 2016. The Milbank Quarterlyjournal articleCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- Accelerating scientific discovery with Co-ScientistJuraj Gottweis; Wei-Hung Weng; Alexander Daryin; et al. 2026. Naturejournal articleCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Gryphon Scientific (now Deloitte)Recommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Gryphon Scientific’s 2016 risk assessmentCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- Optimizing global genomic surveillance for early detection of emerging SARS-CoV-2 variantsHaogao Gu. 2026. Nature Communicationsjournal articleCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- Guerra et al., 2026, RAND RR-A4999-1Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint; AI for Biosecurity Defense; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Guerra, Bulletin, 4 Sep 2026Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- DeepSeek-R1 incentivizes reasoning in LLMs through reinforcement learningDaya Guo; Dejian Yang; Haowei Zhang; et al. 2025. Naturejournal articleCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Assessing the safety of new germicidal far‐UVC technologiesMaximilian Görlitz; Lennart Justen; Patrick J. Rochette; et al. 2023. Photochemistry and Photobiologyjournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- H.R. 3029Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Nextstrain: real-time tracking of pathogen evolutionJames Hadfield; Colin Megill; Sidney M Bell; et al. 2018. Bioinformaticsjournal articleCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 1); Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 2)
- HantavirusesCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Harmonized Screening ProtocolCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Harvard DBMIRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Health SecurityRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- HealthMapCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Heiligenstein, TIME, February 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Introduction to AI Safety, Ethics, and SocietyDan Hendrycks. 2024Recommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- HEPR frameworkCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Airborne Transmission of Influenza A/H5N1 Virus Between FerretsSander Herfst; Eefje J. A. Schrauwen; Martin Linster; et al. 2012. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2); LLMs and Information Hazards
- HHS AI Use Case InventoryRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- HHS ASPRCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- HHS OIG, November 2023Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- HHS P3CO FrameworkCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)Recommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- highlightedCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Horizon FellowshipRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Offline: Bill Gates and the fate of WHORichard Horton. 2022. The Lancetjournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Assessing computational predictions of antimicrobial resistance phenotypes from microbial genomesKaixin Hu. 2024. Briefings in Bioinformaticsjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Huang, NVIDIA Blog, March 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- iarpa.govRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources; Building a Biosecurity Career
- ICRCCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4)
- ICTVRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- IFP, Scaling Pathogen Detection, 2025Cited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- iGEM FoundationRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Ikonomova et al., 2025Cited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- Imai et al., Nature, 2012Cited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- AI-designed viral genomesThomas V. Inglesby; Moritz S. Hanke. 2026. Sciencejournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- insecticide resistance spreading rapidlyCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Insilico MedicineCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- International AI Safety Report 2026International AI Safety Report. 2026. International AI Safety ReportCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Common Mechanism for DNA Synthesis ScreeningInternational Biosecurity and Biosafety Initiative for Science. 2026. International Biosecurity and Biosafety Initiative for ScienceCited in: Executive Summary; DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3)
- International Biosecurity and Biosafety Initiative for Science (IBBIS)Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- International Gene Synthesis ConsortiumCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 4); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Harmonized Screening Protocol v3.0International Gene Synthesis Consortium. 2024. International Gene Synthesis ConsortiumCited in: Executive Summary
- International Genetically Engineered Machine competitionCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2)
- International Health Regulations (2005)Cited in: Further Reading and Resources
- International Network of AI Safety InstitutesCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- introduced into Aedes populationsCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Introduction to AI Safety, Ethics, and SocietyRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- ISO 20688-2:2024Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Janet Parker became the last person recorded to die from smallpoxCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- January 2025Cited in: LLMs and Information Hazards; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityRecommended in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; Further Reading and Resources (passage 1); Further Reading and Resources (passage 2); Building a Biosecurity Career
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 3); The Biological Threat Landscape; Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and SuccessesRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Global trends in emerging infectious diseasesKate E. Jones. 2008. Naturejournal articleCited in: Executive Summary; What Is Biosecurity?; The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 3); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 4)
- July 2025 AI Action PlanCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Kaidzu et al., 2021Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Kane & Parker, 2024Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Bridging antiviral drug discovery with a large language model-powered frameworkBoming Kang; Yang Zhao; Xingyu Chen; et al. 2026. Communications Biologyjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Technical Report on Mirror Bacteria: Feasibility and RisksKatarzyna P. Adamala. 2025. Stanford Digital RepositoryCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Strengthening global biosecurity for synthetic nucleic acid technology: from sequence screening to risk-based governance in the AI eraSebunya Emmanuel Kato; Abigarl Ndudzo; Sarah Olivia Bayiga; et al. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Novel patterns of expression and recruitment of new genes on the t -haplotype, a mouse selfish chromosomeReka K. Kelemen; Marwan Elkrewi; Anna K. Lindholm; et al. 2022. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciencesjournal articleCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Expanding the AI Evaluation Toolbox with Statistical ModelsNIST Center for AI Standards and Innovation. 2026. National Institute of Standards and TechnologyreportCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Ken AlibekCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Global approaches to infectious disease surveillance and modelingMark P. Khurana; Joseph L.-H. Tsui; Bernardo Gutierrez; et al. 2026. Nature Medicinejournal articleCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
- Generative design of bacteriophages with genome language modelsSamuel H. King. 2026. Sciencejournal articleCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- Know Your Customer (KYC)Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 4); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio ConvergenceRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Korbak et al., 2025, preprintCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Kraken2Cited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Lab ManagerCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 4); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 5)
- laboratory biosecurityCited in: What Is Biosecurity?; Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Laboratory Response Network (LRN)Cited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Laboratory-acquired infectionsCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Laboratory-acquired infections (LAIs)Cited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Inter-tool Analysis of a NIST Dataset for Assessing Baseline Nucleic Acid Sequence ScreeningTyler S. Laird; Kevin Flyangolts; Craig Bartling; et al. 2025. Applied Biosafetyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Lambert et al., 2025Cited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- LANL Biosurveillance GatewayCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
- Lassa feverCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- LatchBio, September 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Lee et al., 2024Cited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- Lee et al., 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts (passage 1); Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts (passage 2)
- Distributed Capability, Shared Vulnerability: International Governance of Biosafety and BiosecurityFilippa Lentzos; Gemma Bowsher. 2026. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicinejournal articleCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Lermen, Rogers-Smith, and Ladish, 2024, preprintCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- letters containing Bacillus anthracis sporesCited in: What Is Biosecurity?; The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2); Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2); Attribution and Biological Forensics (passage 1); Attribution and Biological Forensics (passage 2); Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Information Hazards in BiotechnologyGregory Lewis. 2019. Risk Analysisjournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Key animal and plant disease lab stalled by biosafety issuesKate Jen Li. 2026. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Li, Mazeika, Hendrycks et al., 2024Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; LLMs and Information Hazards
- Lightman et al., 2024Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Liu et al., 2026, preprintCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts (passage 1); Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts (passage 2)
- longtermresilience.orgRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Machine Learning of Toxicological Big Data Enables Read-Across Structure Activity Relationships (RASAR) Outperforming Animal Test ReproducibilityThomas Luechtefeld; Dan Marsh; Craig Rowlands; et al. 2018. Toxicological Sciencesjournal articleCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- From capability uplift to capability governance: an AI–biosecurity stackLyly Luhachack; Nancy Connell; Kavita Berger. 2026. Frontiers in Microbiologyjournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- When the Chatbot Leaks: Securing Patient-Facing Medical AI in the Age of Dual-Use Large Language ModelsMadrid-García A, Merino-Barbancho B, Rujas M. 2026. NEJM AIjournal articleCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Leveraging the Federal Select Agent Program to Oversee Nucleic Acids: Volume 2, Potential Benefits and Burdens, Recommendations, and Implementation ConsiderationsMatt Sharkey. 2026. RAND Corporation Research ReportCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- May 2024 USG Policy for Oversight of DURC and Pathogens with Enhanced Pandemic PotentialCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- May 8, 1980Cited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Presence of SARS-Coronavirus-2 RNA in Sewage and Correlation with Reported COVID-19 Prevalence in the Early Stage of the Epidemic in The NetherlandsGertjan Medema. 2020. Environmental Science & Technology Lettersjournal articleCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- Applications of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation disinfection in health care facilities: Effective adjunct, but not stand-alone technologyFarhad Memarzadeh; Russell N. Olmsted; Judene M. Bartley. 2010. American Journal of Infection Controljournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Mendelian inheritanceCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- The Sverdlovsk Anthrax Outbreak of 1979Matthew Meselson. 1994. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Executive Summary; International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention; Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes (passage 1); Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes (passage 2)
- MetaPhlAnCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- METR, 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts; Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks; The Future of Biosecurity
- Mid-Career Biodefense Bootcamp FellowshipRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Miller, 2024, preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Mirror Biology Dialogues FundMirror Biology Dialogues Fund. 2026. Mirror Biology Dialogues FundCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Pre-symptomatic detection of COVID-19 from smartwatch dataTejaswini Mishra; Meng Wang; Ahmed A. Metwally; et al. 2020. Nature Biomedical Engineeringjournal articleCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 1); Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 2)
- MITRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- MIT Synthetic Biology (Dept. of Biological Engineering)Recommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Model Evaluation for Extreme RisksRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- modeling studiesCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Modeling suggestsCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2)
- resLens: genomic language models to enhance antibiotic resistance gene detectionMatthew Mollerus. 2026. npj Antimicrobials and Resistancejournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- MoltbookCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- mSphere, 2025Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- The Global Public Health Intelligence Network and Early Warning Outbreak DetectionEric Mykhalovskiy; Lorna Weir. 2006. Canadian Journal of Public Healthjournal articleCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Nagoya ProtocolCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- National Academies 2016 reportCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Strengthening Preparedness Against Novel Biological Threat Agents Enabled Through Artificial Intelligence and Other Emerging TechnologiesNational Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2026. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and MedicineCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense; AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Preparing for a Future of AI-Enabled BiologyNational Academy of Medicine. 2026. National Academy of MedicineCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense; AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- National Academy of SciencesCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics; Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC)Cited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- Implementation of the U.S. Government Policy for Stopping High-Risk Life Sciences ResearchNational Institutes of Health. 2026. NIH Guide for Grants and ContractsCited in: Executive Summary; Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- NatureRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Nature Biotech 2016Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Nature, 2021Cited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 1); AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 2)
- NCBI GenBankRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- New York Times, Sept. 10, 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- NextstrainCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time GenomicsRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Nextstrain, November 2025Cited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- AMR-GNN: a multi-representation graph neural network framework to enable genomic antimicrobial resistance predictionHoai-An Nguyen. 2026. Nature Communicationsjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- NIHCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- NIHCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 7); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 8); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 9)
- NIHCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 7); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 8); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 9); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 10); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 11); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- NIHCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- NIHCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2)
- NIHCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 4)
- NIHCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- NIH DURCCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity; LLMs and Information Hazards
- NIH NOT-OD-25-127Cited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- NIH NSABBCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint; Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- NIH PracticesCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- NIH, 2026Cited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- Implementing wastewater surveillance for viral pathogens: lessons learned from SARS-CoV-2, monkeypox virus, norovirus and influenza A virusesAidan M. Nikiforuk; Muhammad Zohaib Anwar; James Kwan; et al. 2026. npj Clean Waterjournal articleCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- NIOSH, 2009Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Nipah virusCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Managing Misuse Risk for Dual-Use Foundation ModelsGaithersburg MD NIST. 2025reportCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- NIST CAISI, March 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts (passage 1); Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts (passage 2)
- NIST AI 800-2 Practices for Automated Benchmark Evaluations of Language ModelsNIST Center for AI Standards and Innovation. 2026. National Institute of Standards and TechnologyCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- NIST, 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Nobel Prize in ChemistryCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- Noori et al., 2025, preprintCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- NOT-OD-25-112Cited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- NOT-OD-26-112Cited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- NTICited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 3)Recommended in: Further Reading and Resources (passage 1); Further Reading and Resources (passage 2); Building a Biosecurity Career
- NTICited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6)
- NTICited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 5)
- NTICited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- NTICited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- NTICited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- NTI AIxBio Global ForumCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- NTI | bioRecommended in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- NTI | bio and Concordia AI, August 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI) BiosecurityRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- eProtein DiscoveryNuclera. 2026. NucleraCited in: Executive Summary
- Nutanix, August 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- 29 CFR 1910.134 Respiratory ProtectionOccupational Safety and Health Administration. 1998. Code of Federal RegulationsCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity; The Future of Biosecurity
- October 2023 Executive Order 14110Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; LLMs and Information Hazards; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- ODNI unclassified assessmentCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- OECD Synthetic Biology, AI and Automation AssessmentCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Offensive biological weapons programCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Office of Pandemic Preparedness and Response PolicyCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Framework for Nucleic Acid Synthesis ScreeningOffice of Science and Technology Policy. 2024. Executive Office of the President of the United StatesCited in: Executive Summary; Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology; DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2); Further Reading and Resources
- Office of Science and Technology Policy released the Framework for Nucleic Acid Synthesis ScreeningCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Cotton, Klobuchar Introduce Bill to Establish Federal Biotech Security FrameworkOffice of Senator Tom Cotton. 2026. United States SenateCited in: Executive Summary; DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint; AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- official inquiryCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- One HealthCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- OPCWCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- OPCWCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- OPCWCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 1); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 2); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 3); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 4); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 5); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 6)
- OPCWCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- OPCWCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- OPCW Annex on ChemicalsCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards; The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 1); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 2)
- OPCW IIT, 2021Cited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 1); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 2)
- OPCW, 2026Cited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- GPT-5.6 System CardOpenAI. 2026. OpenAI Deployment Safety HubCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- OpenAI (2024)Cited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals; AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 1); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 2); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 3); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2)
- OpenAI reportedCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; LLMs and Information Hazards
- OpenAI, 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- OpenAI, September 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- openai.comRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- OpenAI’s Model SpecCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- OpenAI’s Preparedness Framework v2Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- OpenClawCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology; Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Deployment of OPCW expert team to the Syrian Arab Republic finds chemical weapons and related materialsOrganisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. 2026. Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical WeaponsCited in: Executive Summary
- OPCW by the NumbersOrganisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. 2026. Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical WeaponsCited in: Executive Summary; The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 1); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 2); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 3); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 4); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 5)
- Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)Cited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- OSTP, 2024Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3)
- other CDC mishandlings of dangerous pathogensCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Barriers to Bioweapons: Intangible Obstacles to ProliferationSonia Ben Ouagrham-Gormley. 2012. International Securityjournal articleCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Our World in DataRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- outbreakCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Ouyang et al., 2022, preprintCited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- OWASP Top 10 for Agentic ApplicationsCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Face mask fit hacks: Improving the fit of KN95 masks and surgical masks with fit alteration techniquesEugenia O'Kelly. 2022. PLOS ONEjournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Assignment of epidemiological lineages in an emerging pandemic using the pangolin toolÁine O’Toole; Emily Scher; Anthony Underwood; et al. 2021. Virus Evolutionjournal articleCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 1); Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 2)
- P.L. 117-328Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Pachocki, 2026, essayCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Safety first: input screening for protein design toolsPhil Palmer; Nikki Teran; Nicole Wheeler; et al. 2026preprintCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Pandemic Accord’s dangerous blind spotCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Pandemic FundCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- pandemic influenzaCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- Pandemic Preparedness Strategy: building our capabilitiesCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- PangolinCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
- Dual-use capabilities of concern of biological AI modelsJaspreet Pannu; Doni Bloomfield; Robert MacKnight; et al. 2025. PLOS Computational Biologyjournal articleCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- parallel to financial sector KYC requirementsCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- Parliament of South Africa, November 2021Cited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 1); Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 2)
- Pathogen Genomics for Public HealthRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- PDB (Protein Data Bank)Recommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Phuong et al., 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- PlagueCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- PLOS Genetics 2017Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- PNASRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Pneumonic plagueCited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2)
- Predator Free 2050Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- PREVENT Pandemics ActCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- PRIFCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- Proceedings of the Royal SocietyCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Provatas et al., 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts; Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Published in PNAS (2019)Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Cybersecurity of genomic dataRonald Pulivarti; Natalia Martin; Frederick R Byers; et al. 2023reportCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Q FeverCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Quadripartite One Health Joint Plan of ActionCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- Wearable sensor data and self-reported symptoms for COVID-19 detectionGiorgio Quer; Jennifer M. Radin; Matteo Gadaleta; et al. 2020. Nature Medicinejournal articleCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 1); Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 2)
- RabiesCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Assessment of Prolonged Physiological and Behavioral Changes Associated With COVID-19 InfectionJennifer M. Radin; Giorgio Quer; Edward Ramos; et al. 2021. JAMA Network Openjournal articleCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
- RANDCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology (passage 1); Cloud Labs and Automated Biology (passage 2)
- RAND Europe Global Risk Index (2025)Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; Further Reading and Resources
- RAND Meselson Center (2025)Cited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- RAND report on biological weapons attributionCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- rand.orgRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources; Building a Biosecurity Career
- rand.org/meselsonRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- RAND’s 2024 report on securing commercial nucleic acid synthesisCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint; Further Reading and Resources
- RAND’s 2025 assessment of the Federal Select Agent ProgramCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Request for Information on AI agent securityCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Research demonstratesCited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals; LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 3)
- Research Organization Registry (ROR)Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Resilience and Sustainability TrustCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- resolution WHA77.17Cited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- Ricin toxinCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Righetti, Lukosiute, and Black, GovAI, April 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 1); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 2); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 3)
- Face shields for infection control: A reviewRaymond J. Roberge. 2016. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygienejournal articleCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- The Reemergent 1977 H1N1 Strain and the Gain-of-Function DebateMichelle Rozo; Gigi Kwik Gronvall. 2015. mBiojournal articleCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- RSP Version 3.0Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- RUSICited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- SAB/REP/1/26, March 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; LLMs and Information Hazards; Cloud Labs and Automated Biology; The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- safe.aiRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Sample, The Guardian, August 2026Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Schmidt SciencesRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- ScienceRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Screening Framework Guidance for Providers of Synthetic Double-Stranded DNACited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- SecureBioRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Review of Anthropic's Chemical and Biological Risk Report: Claude Opus 4.6SecureBio. 2026. SecureBioCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards; Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- SecureBio DetectionCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 1); AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 2); Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
- SecureDNACited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence; Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- SecureDNA uses computational methodsCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Security Considerations for Artificial Intelligence AgentsCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Security Considerations for Multi-agent SystemsCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Select Agent ProgramCited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2); Pathogens of Concern (passage 3); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2); Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and SuccessesRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Select Agents ProgramCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3)
- Senate CommitteeCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4)
- shared responsibilityCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- Measuring Mid-2025 LLM-Assistance on Novice Performance in BiologyShen Zhou Hong. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: Executive Summary; AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 3); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 4); Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Sherwood-Randall and McQuade, August 2026Cited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Germicidal UV Light and Incidence of Acute Respiratory Infection in Long-Term Care for Older AdultsAndrew P. Shoubridge; Amanda Brass; Maria Crotty; et al. 2025. JAMA Internal Medicinejournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- significant improvementsCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- SIPRI’s 2025 analysisCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- six categories, 37 indicators, and 171 questionsCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- Developing Safe and Effective Covid Vaccines — Operation Warp Speed’s Strategy and ApproachMoncef Slaoui; Matthew Hepburn. 2020. New England Journal of Medicinejournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- SmallpoxCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Smith et al., 2026, preprintCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology; Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- A StrongREJECT for Empty JailbreaksAlexandra Souly. 2024. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systemsconference paperCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Spiez CONVERGENCECited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- spread into the communityCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- spread to sister species through hybridizationCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Spring 2026 scanCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- StanfordCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2)
- Stanford CISACRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources; Building a Biosecurity Career
- Stat NewsRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- State DepartmentRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- A Deep Learning Approach to Antibiotic DiscoveryJonathan M. Stokes. 2020. Celljournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Sugihara et al., 2025Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Tips for Managing Personal Protective Equipment in Your Stockpile: Respirator Selection and PurchaseSusan Moore. 2024. NIOSH Science BulletinCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Sutskever, 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- SynthegoCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- Target MalariaCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2)
- technician had removed a clogged air filterCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes (passage 1); Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes (passage 2)
- terminated all Target Malaria activitiesCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Developing a standard definition for sequences of concernTessa Alexanian. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and BiotechnologyCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- The 2005 International Health RegulationsCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- The LancetRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- The New AtlantisCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- The ScientistRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- The Stack, January 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Improving the Safety and Security of Biological ResearchThe White House. 2025. Executive Order 14292Cited in: Executive Summary; Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 1); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 2); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- This Week in VirologyRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Tick-borne encephalitis virusesCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Tobias & Wahab, 2025Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- De novo design of RNA pseudoknots with deep learningJill Townley; Wipapat Kladwang; David Baker; et al. 2026. Sciencejournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- Toxic Terror: Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical and Biological WeaponsRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- Training code, inference code, and model weights are publicly availableCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- TularemiaCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Twist BioscienceCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- U.S. Army ACWA, July 2023Cited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- U.S. Center for AI Standards and Innovation (CAISI)Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; LLMs and Information Hazards
- U.S. Government Policy for Stopping High-Risk Life Sciences ResearchCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- UC San DiegoCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 4); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 5)
- UK AI Security InstituteCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; LLMs and Information Hazards
- Boundary Point Jailbreaking: A new way to break the strongest AI defencesUK AI Security Institute. 2026. UK AI Security InstituteCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards; Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Principles for Evaluating Misuse Safeguards of Frontier AI SystemsUK AI Security Institute Safeguards Team. 2025. UK AI Security InstituteCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- UN ODACited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 5); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 6)
- UN ODA CBMCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 5); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 6)
- UN Press, 2020Cited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 1); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 2)
- UN Secretary-General’s MechanismCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- UN Security Council Resolution 1540Cited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- UNCCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- UNIDIRCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3)
- Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their DestructionUnited Nations. 1972. United Nations Treaty CollectionCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Mirror LifeUnited Nations Scientific Advisory Board. 2026. United Nations Secretary-General's Scientific Advisory BoardCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 3); The Future of Biosecurity; Glossary of Biosecurity Terms
- Statement by the Chair of the 1540 CommitteeUnited Nations Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1540. 2025. United Nations Security CouncilCited in: Executive Summary; International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- U.S. Government Policy for Stopping High-Risk Life Sciences ResearchUnited States Government. 2026. The White HouseCited in: Executive Summary; Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- University biofoundriesCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- University of HawaiiCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- University of HoustonCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- UNODA BWC meetingsCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3)
- UNODA membershipCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- Dual use of artificial-intelligence-powered drug discoveryFabio Urbina; Filippa Lentzos; Cédric Invernizzi; et al. 2022. Nature Machine Intelligencejournal articleCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 1); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 2); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- usamriid.health.milRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- USDA confirmed H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza in dairy cattleCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- USDA OIG, 2026, Exhibit ACited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Usher, 2021Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- UTRGVCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3)
- vaccine composition recommendations twice yearlyCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 3); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 4)
- Pandemic security needs national leadershipMaria D. Van Kerkhove; Chikwe Ihekweazu. 2025. Sciencejournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Personal protective equipment for preventing highly infectious diseases due to exposure to contaminated body fluids in healthcare staffJos H Verbeek; Blair Rajamaki; Sharea Ijaz; et al. 2020. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviewsjournal articleCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- VERTICCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2)
- vials labeled variola (smallpox virus)Cited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Intrinsic dataset features drive mutational effect prediction by protein language modelsLuiz C. Vieira. 2026. bioRxiv preprintpreprintCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- ViralZoneRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Virology Capabilities TestCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Intelligent assessment: Putting emerging biotechnology threats in contextKathleen M. Vogel. 2013. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientistsjournal articleCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Voluntary 60-day moratoriumCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- WAHIS animal disease reportingCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- A call for built-in biosecurity safeguards for generative AI toolsMengdi Wang; Zaixi Zhang; Amrit Singh Bedi; et al. 2025. Nature Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- warned in congressional testimonyCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- warned that AI could make it easierCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Wastewater surveillanceCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Global impact of the first year of COVID-19 vaccination: a mathematical modelling studyOliver J. Watson. 2022. The Lancet Infectious Diseasesjournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- De novo design of protein structure and function with RFdiffusionJoseph L. Watson; David Juergens; Nathaniel R. Bennett; et al. 2023. Naturejournal articleCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Global Risk Index for AI-enabled Biological Tools (Public Report)Toby Webster; Richard Moulange; Barbara Del Castello; et al. 2025reportCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- Welch et al., 2023Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Wellcome TrustRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- WHA78.1Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- where AI-designed biological agents must be converted into physical materialsCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 1); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 2); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 3)
- WHOCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 3); The Biological Threat Landscape
- WHOCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- WHO Joint External Evaluation (JEE)Cited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- WHO Laboratory Biosafety Manual (4th Edition)Recommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- WHO Laboratory Biosafety Manual, Fourth EditionCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- WHO Pandemic Agreement’s Pathogen Access and Benefit Sharing (PABS) annexCited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- WHO Pandemic Influenza Preparedness (PIP) FrameworkCited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 1); Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 2)
- WHO SAGO, 2025Cited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- WHO Scientific Advisory Group for the Origins of Novel Pathogens (SAGO) independent assessmentCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- WHO, 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- WHO, December 2025Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 3); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 4)
- WHO, July 2026Cited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- WHO, November 2021Cited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 1); Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 2)
- WHO-China joint studyCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- Wintermute et al., 2026, preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards; Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks (passage 1); Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks (passage 2)
- with documented compliance concerns under the BWCCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Strengthening nucleic acid biosecurity screening against generative protein design toolsBruce J. Wittmann. 2025. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Executive Summary; DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier; AI-Enabled Pathogen Design; The Future of Biosecurity
- The limits of sequence-based biosecurity screening tools in the age of AI-assisted protein designBruce J. Wittmann; Nicole E. Wheeler; Steven T. Murphy; et al. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- woah.orgRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- World Health Assembly adopted resolution WHA77.7Cited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- World Health Emergencies programCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- World Health OrganizationCited in: Attribution and Biological ForensicsRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- International Health Regulations (2005), consolidated text including amendments adopted in 2014, 2022 and 2024World Health Organization. 2026. World Health OrganizationCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- One healthWorld Health Organization. 2026. World Health OrganizationCited in: Executive Summary; What Is Biosecurity?; The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- High-throughput synthesis of DNA fragments by molecular self-assembly of overlapping oligonucleotidesZhiguang Wu; Zhengyang Sun; Shuangying Jiang; et al. 2026. Nature Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- xAI, September 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Zakaria et al., 2026Cited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Programmable design of synthetic plant immune receptors for pathogen protein recognitionHaocheng Zhu; Dandan Jiang; Qiao Zhang; et al. 2026. Sciencejournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
Executive Summary
References
- The Global Health Security Index is not predictive of coronavirus pandemic responses among Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development countriesEnoch J. Abbey. 2020. PLOS ONEjournal articleCited in: Executive Summary
- DNA Synthesis ProductsAnsa Biotechnologies. 2026. Ansa BiotechnologiesCited in: Executive Summary
- LLM Novice Uplift on Dual-Use, In Silico Biology TasksChen Bo Calvin Zhang. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: Executive Summary
- The Operational Risks of AI in Large-Scale Biological Attacks: Results of a Red-Team StudyChristopher A. Mouton. 2024. RAND Research ReportCited in: Executive Summary
- SYNTAX DNA Printing SystemDNA Script. 2026. DNA ScriptCited in: Executive Summary
- Common Mechanism for DNA Synthesis ScreeningInternational Biosecurity and Biosafety Initiative for Science. 2026. International Biosecurity and Biosafety Initiative for ScienceCited in: Executive Summary
- Harmonized Screening Protocol v3.0International Gene Synthesis Consortium. 2024. International Gene Synthesis ConsortiumCited in: Executive Summary
- Global trends in emerging infectious diseasesKate E. Jones. 2008. Naturejournal articleCited in: Executive Summary
- The Sverdlovsk Anthrax Outbreak of 1979Matthew Meselson. 1994. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Executive Summary
- Implementation of the U.S. Government Policy for Stopping High-Risk Life Sciences ResearchNational Institutes of Health. 2026. NIH Guide for Grants and ContractsCited in: Executive Summary
- eProtein DiscoveryNuclera. 2026. NucleraCited in: Executive Summary
- Framework for Nucleic Acid Synthesis ScreeningOffice of Science and Technology Policy. 2024. Executive Office of the President of the United StatesCited in: Executive Summary
- Cotton, Klobuchar Introduce Bill to Establish Federal Biotech Security FrameworkOffice of Senator Tom Cotton. 2026. United States SenateCited in: Executive Summary
- Deployment of OPCW expert team to the Syrian Arab Republic finds chemical weapons and related materialsOrganisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. 2026. Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical WeaponsCited in: Executive Summary
- OPCW by the NumbersOrganisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. 2026. Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical WeaponsCited in: Executive Summary
- Measuring Mid-2025 LLM-Assistance on Novice Performance in BiologyShen Zhou Hong. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: Executive Summary
- Improving the Safety and Security of Biological ResearchThe White House. 2025. Executive Order 14292Cited in: Executive Summary
- Statement by the Chair of the 1540 CommitteeUnited Nations Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1540. 2025. United Nations Security CouncilCited in: Executive Summary
- U.S. Government Policy for Stopping High-Risk Life Sciences ResearchUnited States Government. 2026. The White HouseCited in: Executive Summary
- Strengthening nucleic acid biosecurity screening against generative protein design toolsBruce J. Wittmann. 2025. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Executive Summary
- One healthWorld Health Organization. 2026. World Health OrganizationCited in: Executive Summary
Part I: Foundations
What Is Biosecurity?
References
- 189 States Parties and four Signatory StatesCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- The Global Health Security Index is not predictive of coronavirus pandemic responses among Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development countriesEnoch J. Abbey. 2020. PLOS ONEjournal articleCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2)
- Anthrax lettersCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- Aum ShinrikyoCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2)
- biological program largely failedCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)Cited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2)
- Biopreparat programCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2)
- Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL)Cited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- CDCCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 3)
- CDC BMBLCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2)
- evolved through distinct erasCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2)
- Geneva ProtocolCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2)
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 3)
- Global trends in emerging infectious diseasesKate E. Jones. 2008. Naturejournal articleCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- laboratory biosecurityCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- letters containing Bacillus anthracis sporesCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- NTICited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 3)
- One HealthCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- Quadripartite One Health Joint Plan of ActionCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- shared responsibilityCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- six categories, 37 indicators, and 171 questionsCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- WHOCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 3)
- One healthWorld Health Organization. 2026. World Health OrganizationCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
The Biological Threat Landscape
References
- 1977 H1N1 re-emergenceCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- 1978 Birmingham smallpox outbreakCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- 2004 SARS Beijing outbreakCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 3)
- 2014 discovery of variola-labelled vialsCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- a SARS outbreak in China traced back to a laboratoryCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- The Global Health Security Index is not predictive of coronavirus pandemic responses among Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development countriesEnoch J. Abbey. 2020. PLOS ONEjournal articleCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Aum ShinrikyoCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- biological program largely failedCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Biological weaponsCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)Cited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Biopreparat programCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- Laboratory-acquired infections and pathogen escapes worldwide between 2000 and 2021: a scoping reviewStuart D Blacksell; Sandhya Dhawan; Marina Kusumoto; et al. 2024. The Lancet Microbejournal articleCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Category A agentsCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- COVID-19Cited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- EbolaCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- Janet Parker became the last person recorded to die from smallpoxCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Global trends in emerging infectious diseasesKate E. Jones. 2008. Naturejournal articleCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 3); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 4)
- Laboratory-acquired infectionsCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Laboratory-acquired infections (LAIs)Cited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- letters containing Bacillus anthracis sporesCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- Offensive biological weapons programCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- other CDC mishandlings of dangerous pathogensCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- pandemic influenzaCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- vials labeled variola (smallpox virus)Cited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- WHOCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- WHO SAGO, 2025Cited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- with documented compliance concerns under the BWCCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- World Health Emergencies programCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- One healthWorld Health Organization. 2026. World Health OrganizationCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
Pathogens of Concern
References
- AnthraxCited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2)
- Aum ShinrikyoCited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2)
- BotulismCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- BrucellosisCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Category A agentsCited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2); Pathogens of Concern (passage 3)
- CDCCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- declared eradicated (1980)Cited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2)
- EbolaCited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2)
- FDACited in: Pathogens of Concern
- FDA Smallpox PreparednessCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Federal Select Agent ProgramCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- FSAPCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- HantavirusesCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Lassa feverCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- letters containing Bacillus anthracis sporesCited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2)
- Nipah virusCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- PlagueCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Pneumonic plagueCited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2)
- Q FeverCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- RabiesCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Ricin toxinCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Select Agent ProgramCited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2); Pathogens of Concern (passage 3)
- SmallpoxCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Tick-borne encephalitis virusesCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- TularemiaCited in: Pathogens of Concern
Part II: Operational Biosecurity
Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
References
- 2026 Nature Methods proposal for the MIHCLE reporting standardCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- BioRisk Assessment Models (BioRAMs)Cited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Biosafety.beCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3)
- Biosecurity CentralCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Biosecurity CentralCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Boston UniversityCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Bureau BiosecurityCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- CDC BMBLCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 4); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 5); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 6); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 7); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 8); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 9)
- CDC/NIOSH Certified Equipment ListCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- CDC/NIOSH Hierarchy of ControlsCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- CDC/NIOSH PPECited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- CDC/NIOSH-approved respiratorsCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Cornell EHSCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Cyberbiosecurity Implementation in Laboratory Settings: A Scoping ReviewAlejandra Cova; Ming Ong; Leo Shih; et al. 2026. Applied Biosafetyjournal articleCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Cyberbiosecurity in high-containment laboratoriesElizabeth Crawford; Adam Bobrow; Landy Sun; et al. 2023. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Measures to strengthen international biosafety and biosecurity practicesEtienne Decroly; Patrick Berche; Ali Asy; et al. 2026. PLOS Biologyjournal articleCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- FSAPCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3)
- GAO-26-107338Cited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 4)
- HHS ASPRCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Lab ManagerCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 4); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 5)
- laboratory biosecurityCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Key animal and plant disease lab stalled by biosafety issuesKate Jen Li. 2026. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- NIHCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- NIHCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- NIHCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 4)
- NIH DURCCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- NIH PracticesCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- NOT-OD-26-112Cited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- 29 CFR 1910.134 Respiratory ProtectionOccupational Safety and Health Administration. 1998. Code of Federal RegulationsCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Cybersecurity of genomic dataRonald Pulivarti; Natalia Martin; Frederick R Byers; et al. 2023reportCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Face shields for infection control: A reviewRaymond J. Roberge. 2016. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygienejournal articleCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Select Agent ProgramCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Select Agents ProgramCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3)
- UC San DiegoCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 4); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 5)
- UNCCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- University of HawaiiCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- University of HoustonCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- USDA OIG, 2026, Exhibit ACited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- UTRGVCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3)
- Personal protective equipment for preventing highly infectious diseases due to exposure to contaminated body fluids in healthcare staffJos H Verbeek; Blair Rajamaki; Sharea Ijaz; et al. 2020. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviewsjournal articleCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- WHO Laboratory Biosafety Manual, Fourth EditionCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- World Health Assembly adopted resolution WHA77.7Cited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
References
- ASMCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2)
- Artificial intelligence, pharmaceutical development and dual-use research of concern: a call to actionChristopher Bobier; Daniel J Hurst; John Obeid. 2025. Journal of Medical Ethicsjournal articleCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- CDCCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- CFRCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6)
- CIDRAPCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 7); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 8); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 9); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 10)
- COGR, August 2026Cited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- FASCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 7); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 8); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 9); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 10)
- Florescu-Ciobotaru and Workman, August 2026Cited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- Fouchier et al., 2012Cited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 7)
- Fouchier et al., 2013Cited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2)
- May 2024 USG Policy for Oversight of DURC and Pathogens with Enhanced Pandemic PotentialCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- Implementation of the U.S. Government Policy for Stopping High-Risk Life Sciences ResearchNational Institutes of Health. 2026. NIH Guide for Grants and ContractsCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- NIHCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 7); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 8); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 9)
- NIHCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 7); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 8); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 9); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 10); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 11)
- NIHCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- NIH NSABBCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6)
- NTICited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6)
- pandemic influenzaCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- Dual-use capabilities of concern of biological AI modelsJaspreet Pannu; Doni Bloomfield; Robert MacKnight; et al. 2025. PLOS Computational Biologyjournal articleCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- PREVENT Pandemics ActCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- RAND Meselson Center (2025)Cited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- Senate CommitteeCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4)
- StanfordCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2)
- The New AtlantisCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- Improving the Safety and Security of Biological ResearchThe White House. 2025. Executive Order 14292Cited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- U.S. Government Policy for Stopping High-Risk Life Sciences ResearchUnited States Government. 2026. The White HouseCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
References
- Armstrong et al. describe in the New England Journal of MedicineCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- attacks from natural outbreaksCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- automated event-based surveillanceCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Bhatt et al., 2026, preprintCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- BritannicaCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- CDC NWSS FAQCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- CDC, June 2026Cited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 3)
- decision tool in Annex 2Cited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Data, disease and diplomacy: GISAID's innovative contribution to global healthStefan Elbe; Gemma Buckland‐Merrett. 2017. Global Challengesjournal articleCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Essential Regulatory LaboratoriesCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Expert-curated outbreak reportsCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 3)
- FluNet platformCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- GISAIDCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- The International Health Regulations: The Governing Framework for Global Health SecurityLAWRENCE O. GOSTIN; REBECCA KATZ. 2016. The Milbank Quarterlyjournal articleCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- Optimizing global genomic surveillance for early detection of emerging SARS-CoV-2 variantsHaogao Gu. 2026. Nature Communicationsjournal articleCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- Laboratory Response Network (LRN)Cited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Presence of SARS-Coronavirus-2 RNA in Sewage and Correlation with Reported COVID-19 Prevalence in the Early Stage of the Epidemic in The NetherlandsGertjan Medema. 2020. Environmental Science & Technology Lettersjournal articleCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- The Global Public Health Intelligence Network and Early Warning Outbreak DetectionEric Mykhalovskiy; Lorna Weir. 2006. Canadian Journal of Public Healthjournal articleCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Nextstrain, November 2025Cited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- Implementing wastewater surveillance for viral pathogens: lessons learned from SARS-CoV-2, monkeypox virus, norovirus and influenza A virusesAidan M. Nikiforuk; Muhammad Zohaib Anwar; James Kwan; et al. 2026. npj Clean Waterjournal articleCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- resolution WHA77.17Cited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- vaccine composition recommendations twice yearlyCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 3); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 4)
- WAHIS animal disease reportingCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Wastewater surveillanceCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- International Health Regulations (2005), consolidated text including amendments adopted in 2014, 2022 and 2024World Health Organization. 2026. World Health OrganizationCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- One healthWorld Health Organization. 2026. World Health OrganizationCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
References
- AI and the Future of Medical Countermeasures to Protect Against Biological ThreatsAmesh A. Adalja. 2026. Open Forum Infectious Diseasesjournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- ASPRCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- ASPR TRACIECited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- BARDACited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- Battelle, 2017Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Blueprint Biosecurity, 2025Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Far-UVC light (222 nm) efficiently and safely inactivates airborne human coronavirusesManuela Buonanno; David Welch; Igor Shuryak; et al. 2020. Scientific Reportsjournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Buonanno et al., 2024Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- CDC Influenza AntiviralsCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- CDC/NIOSH GUVCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 3); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 4)
- CDC/NIOSH Ventilation FAQCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 3)
- CEPICited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- ClinicalTrials.gov, OCU500Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- The Age of AI in the Life SciencesNational Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. National Academies PressCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- Far-UVC (222 nm) efficiently inactivates an airborne pathogen in a room-sized chamberEwan Eadie; Waseem Hiwar; Louise Fletcher; et al. 2022. Scientific Reportsjournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 3)
- FDACited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- FDACited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- FDACited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- FDA Animal RuleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- FDA COVID-19 DrugsCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- FDA EUA FAQCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- FDA Safety CommunicationCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- FDA Smallpox PreparednessCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- GAO, 2021Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Assessing the safety of new germicidal far‐UVC technologiesMaximilian Görlitz; Lennart Justen; Patrick J. Rochette; et al. 2023. Photochemistry and Photobiologyjournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- HHS OIG, November 2023Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Kaidzu et al., 2021Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Applications of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation disinfection in health care facilities: Effective adjunct, but not stand-alone technologyFarhad Memarzadeh; Russell N. Olmsted; Judene M. Bartley. 2010. American Journal of Infection Controljournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Strengthening Preparedness Against Novel Biological Threat Agents Enabled Through Artificial Intelligence and Other Emerging TechnologiesNational Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2026. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and MedicineCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Preparing for a Future of AI-Enabled BiologyNational Academy of Medicine. 2026. National Academy of MedicineCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- NIHCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- NIOSH, 2009Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Germicidal UV Light and Incidence of Acute Respiratory Infection in Long-Term Care for Older AdultsAndrew P. Shoubridge; Amanda Brass; Maria Crotty; et al. 2025. JAMA Internal Medicinejournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Developing Safe and Effective Covid Vaccines — Operation Warp Speed’s Strategy and ApproachMoncef Slaoui; Matthew Hepburn. 2020. New England Journal of Medicinejournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- Sugihara et al., 2025Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Usher, 2021Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Global impact of the first year of COVID-19 vaccination: a mathematical modelling studyOliver J. Watson. 2022. The Lancet Infectious Diseasesjournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- Welch et al., 2023Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
Attribution and Biological Forensics
References
- 2022 capstone exercise led by the Robert Koch InstituteCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- Biological Weapons ConventionCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- Chemical Weapons ConventionCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- Dawn Sturgess Inquiry reportCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- letters containing Bacillus anthracis sporesCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics (passage 1); Attribution and Biological Forensics (passage 2)
- National Academy of SciencesCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC)Cited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- ODNI unclassified assessmentCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)Cited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- RAND report on biological weapons attributionCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- UN Secretary-General’s MechanismCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- WHO Scientific Advisory Group for the Origins of Novel Pathogens (SAGO) independent assessmentCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- WHO-China joint studyCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- World Health OrganizationCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
References
- Africa Pathogen Genomics Initiative (Africa PGI)Cited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 1); Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 2)
- Africa PGICited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- Africa PGICited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- called the travel bans travel apartheidCited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- Parliament of South Africa, November 2021Cited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 1); Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 2)
- WHO Joint External Evaluation (JEE)Cited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- WHO Pandemic Agreement’s Pathogen Access and Benefit Sharing (PABS) annexCited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- WHO Pandemic Influenza Preparedness (PIP) FrameworkCited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 1); Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 2)
- WHO, July 2026Cited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- WHO, November 2021Cited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 1); Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 2)
Part III: The Democratization of Biology
Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
References
- 2023 HHS guidanceCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Confronting risks of mirror lifeKatarzyna P. Adamala. 2024. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 3); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 4)
- BioBricks RegistryCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2)
- Bulletin of the Atomic ScientistsCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- The changing economics of DNA synthesisRobert Carlson. 2009. Nature Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 3)
- Community Biology Biosafety HandbookCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2)
- GenspaceCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- International Gene Synthesis ConsortiumCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2)
- International Genetically Engineered Machine competitionCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2)
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Technical Report on Mirror Bacteria: Feasibility and RisksKatarzyna P. Adamala. 2025. Stanford Digital RepositoryCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Mirror Biology Dialogues FundMirror Biology Dialogues Fund. 2026. Mirror Biology Dialogues FundCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- NIHCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2)
- Framework for Nucleic Acid Synthesis ScreeningOffice of Science and Technology Policy. 2024. Executive Office of the President of the United StatesCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their DestructionUnited Nations. 1972. United Nations Treaty CollectionCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Mirror LifeUnited Nations Scientific Advisory Board. 2026. United Nations Secretary-General's Scientific Advisory BoardCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 3)
- Zakaria et al., 2026Cited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
References
- 2023 HHS guidanceCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2)
- 2025 RAND report on protecting biological materialsCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Beyond sequence similarity: toward function-based screening of nucleic acid synthesisGary R. Abel Jr; Tessa Alexanian; Craig Bartling; et al. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Evaluating AI-assisted customer verification for synthetic nucleic acid screeningAlejandro Acelas; Hanna Palya; Kevin Flyangolts; et al. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Ansa BiotechnologiesCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- April 29, 2024 OSTP Framework for Nucleic Acid Synthesis ScreeningCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3)
- Australia GroupCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Australia Group Common Control ListsCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- A system capable of verifiably and privately screening global DNA synthesisCarsten Baum; Jens Berlips; Walther Chen; et al. 2026. National Science Reviewjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Benchtop DNA synthesizersCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Biological Weapons ConventionCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- BioSecure frameworkCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Biosecurity Modernization and Innovation Act of 2026 (S. 3741)Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3)
- Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) export controlCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Implementing emerging customer screening standards for nucleic acid synthesisSarah R. Carter; Lucas Boldrini; Tessa Alexanian. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- DNA ScriptCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Assembling unregulated DNA segments bypasses synthesis screening: regulate fragments as select agentsRey Edison; Shay Toner; Kevin M. Esvelt. 2026. Nature Communicationsjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2)
- EU dual-use itemsCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Executive Order 14292 (May 5, 2025)Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 4)
- FASCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- FBI Weapons of Mass Destruction DirectorateCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Guerra et al., 2026, RAND RR-A4999-1Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Guerra, Bulletin, 4 Sep 2026Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- AI-designed viral genomesThomas V. Inglesby; Moritz S. Hanke. 2026. Sciencejournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Common Mechanism for DNA Synthesis ScreeningInternational Biosecurity and Biosafety Initiative for Science. 2026. International Biosecurity and Biosafety Initiative for ScienceCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3)
- International Biosecurity and Biosafety Initiative for Science (IBBIS)Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- International Gene Synthesis ConsortiumCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 4)
- ISO 20688-2:2024Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Kane & Parker, 2024Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2)
- Strengthening global biosecurity for synthetic nucleic acid technology: from sequence screening to risk-based governance in the AI eraSebunya Emmanuel Kato; Abigarl Ndudzo; Sarah Olivia Bayiga; et al. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Know Your Customer (KYC)Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 4)
- Inter-tool Analysis of a NIST Dataset for Assessing Baseline Nucleic Acid Sequence ScreeningTyler S. Laird; Kevin Flyangolts; Craig Bartling; et al. 2025. Applied Biosafetyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Leveraging the Federal Select Agent Program to Oversee Nucleic Acids: Volume 2, Potential Benefits and Burdens, Recommendations, and Implementation ConsiderationsMatt Sharkey. 2026. RAND Corporation Research ReportCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- NIH NSABBCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- NTICited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- NTICited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Framework for Nucleic Acid Synthesis ScreeningOffice of Science and Technology Policy. 2024. Executive Office of the President of the United StatesCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2)
- Cotton, Klobuchar Introduce Bill to Establish Federal Biotech Security FrameworkOffice of Senator Tom Cotton. 2026. United States SenateCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- OSTP, 2024Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3)
- RAND’s 2024 report on securing commercial nucleic acid synthesisCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Research Organization Registry (ROR)Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Sample, The Guardian, August 2026Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Screening Framework Guidance for Providers of Synthetic Double-Stranded DNACited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- SecureDNACited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2)
- Select Agent ProgramCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- significant improvementsCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Developing a standard definition for sequences of concernTessa Alexanian. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and BiotechnologyCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Twist BioscienceCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Strengthening nucleic acid biosecurity screening against generative protein design toolsBruce J. Wittmann. 2025. Sciencejournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3)
- The limits of sequence-based biosecurity screening tools in the age of AI-assisted protein designBruce J. Wittmann; Nicole E. Wheeler; Steven T. Murphy; et al. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2)
- High-throughput synthesis of DNA fragments by molecular self-assembly of overlapping oligonucleotidesZhiguang Wu; Zhengyang Sun; Shuangying Jiang; et al. 2026. Nature Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
References
- 2024 DURC/PEPP policyCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- Biological Weapons ConventionCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- biosafety incidents occurCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- CDCCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- funding pauseCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- Gain-of-function (GOF) researchCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- GAO-26-107348Cited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- GISAIDCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- Gryphon Scientific’s 2016 risk assessmentCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- Airborne Transmission of Influenza A/H5N1 Virus Between FerretsSander Herfst; Eefje J. A. Schrauwen; Martin Linster; et al. 2012. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- HHS P3CO FrameworkCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- Imai et al., Nature, 2012Cited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- Implementation of the U.S. Government Policy for Stopping High-Risk Life Sciences ResearchNational Institutes of Health. 2026. NIH Guide for Grants and ContractsCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- NIHCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- NIH NOT-OD-25-127Cited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- NIH NSABBCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- NIH, 2026Cited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- NOT-OD-25-112Cited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- pandemic influenzaCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- Improving the Safety and Security of Biological ResearchThe White House. 2025. Executive Order 14292Cited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- U.S. Government Policy for Stopping High-Risk Life Sciences ResearchCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- Voluntary 60-day moratoriumCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
References
- 2014 paper in eLifeCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- 2016 U.S. Intelligence Community Worldwide Threat AssessmentCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- 2018 study by Kyrou et al. in Nature BiotechnologyCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- anti-Plasmodium effector genesCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- biosecurity analysesCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Cartagena ProtocolCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2)
- chytrid fungus (Scheele et al., 2019)Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Convention on Biological DiversityCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2)
- CRISPR-Cas9 systemCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Decision 14/19 (2018)Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Decision 15/31 (2022)Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Diagne et al., Nature 2021Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Ecological modelingCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Esvelt & Gemmell, PLOS Biology 2017Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2)
- ETC GroupCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- GBIRd (Genetic Biocontrol of Invasive Rodents)Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- insecticide resistance spreading rapidlyCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- introduced into Aedes populationsCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Novel patterns of expression and recruitment of new genes on the t -haplotype, a mouse selfish chromosomeReka K. Kelemen; Marwan Elkrewi; Anna K. Lindholm; et al. 2022. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciencesjournal articleCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Mendelian inheritanceCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- modeling studiesCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Modeling suggestsCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Nagoya ProtocolCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- National Academies 2016 reportCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Nature Biotech 2016Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- PLOS Genetics 2017Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Predator Free 2050Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Proceedings of the Royal SocietyCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Published in PNAS (2019)Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- spread to sister species through hybridizationCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Target MalariaCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2)
- terminated all Target Malaria activitiesCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- WHOCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- WHO, December 2025Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 3); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 4)
Part IV: AI and Biosecurity
AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
References
- 2025 guidanceCited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- Attention Is All You NeedCited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- The Operational Risks of AI in Large-Scale Biological Attacks: Results of a Red-Team StudyChristopher A. Mouton. 2024. RAND Research ReportCited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- Claude 3 Model CardCited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- Lambert et al., 2025Cited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- Lee et al., 2024Cited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- OpenAI (2024)Cited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- Ouyang et al., 2022, preprintCited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- Research demonstratesCited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
Recommended reading
- 3Blue1Brown’s neural network seriesRecommended in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- Andrej Karpathy’s tutorialsRecommended in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- Deep Learning bookRecommended in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
References
- 2023 preprintCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 1); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 2); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 3)
- 2025 GovAI reportCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- 2025 Scale AI/SecureBio preprintCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Developing a Risk-Scoring Tool for Artificial Intelligence-Enabled Biological Design: A Method to Assess the Risks of Using Artificial Intelligence to Modify Select Viral CapabilitiesAdeline E. Williams. 2026. RAND Corporation Research ReportCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- AlphaFoldCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- AlphaFold 3’s biosecurity implicationsCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- AlphaFold/AlphaFold3Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Amodei, 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Responsible Scaling Policy Version 3.4Anthropic. 2026. AnthropicCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Anthropic, 2025Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Anthropic, 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Artificial intelligence, pharmaceutical development and dual-use research of concern: a call to actionChristopher Bobier; Daniel J Hurst; John Obeid. 2025. Journal of Medical Ethicsjournal articleCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Genome modelling and design across all domains of life with Evo 2Garyk Brixi; Matthew G. Durrant; Jerome Ku; et al. 2026. Naturejournal articleCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- LLM Novice Uplift on Dual-Use, In Silico Biology TasksChen Bo Calvin Zhang. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 1); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 2); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 3); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 4)
- The Operational Risks of AI in Large-Scale Biological Attacks: Results of a Red-Team StudyChristopher A. Mouton. 2024. RAND Research ReportCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 1); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 2)
- classroom exercise reported in a preprintCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Claude 3 Model CardCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 1); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 2)
- CNASCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Collins, Science Studies, 1974Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- DeepMind blogCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Dev et al., 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- DHS-commissioned RAND studyCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Ellison et al., 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Evo 2Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Federation of American ScientistsCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Google DeepMind, Microsoft, and xAI signed agreementsCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- DeepSeek-R1 incentivizes reasoning in LLMs through reinforcement learningDaya Guo; Dejian Yang; Haowei Zhang; et al. 2025. Naturejournal articleCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- H.R. 3029Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Harmonized Screening ProtocolCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- International AI Safety Report 2026International AI Safety Report. 2026. International AI Safety ReportCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- International Gene Synthesis ConsortiumCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Kane & Parker, 2024Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Generative design of bacteriophages with genome language modelsSamuel H. King. 2026. Sciencejournal articleCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Li, Mazeika, Hendrycks et al., 2024Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Lightman et al., 2024Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Machine Learning of Toxicological Big Data Enables Read-Across Structure Activity Relationships (RASAR) Outperforming Animal Test ReproducibilityThomas Luechtefeld; Dan Marsh; Craig Rowlands; et al. 2018. Toxicological Sciencesjournal articleCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- METR, 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Strengthening Preparedness Against Novel Biological Threat Agents Enabled Through Artificial Intelligence and Other Emerging TechnologiesNational Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2026. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and MedicineCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Preparing for a Future of AI-Enabled BiologyNational Academy of Medicine. 2026. National Academy of MedicineCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- New York Times, Sept. 10, 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- October 2023 Executive Order 14110Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Office of Science and Technology Policy released the Framework for Nucleic Acid Synthesis ScreeningCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Cotton, Klobuchar Introduce Bill to Establish Federal Biotech Security FrameworkOffice of Senator Tom Cotton. 2026. United States SenateCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- OpenAI (2024)Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 1); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 2); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 3)
- OpenAI reportedCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- OpenAI, 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- OpenAI’s Preparedness Framework v2Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Barriers to Bioweapons: Intangible Obstacles to ProliferationSonia Ben Ouagrham-Gormley. 2012. International Securityjournal articleCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Phuong et al., 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Provatas et al., 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- RAND Europe Global Risk Index (2025)Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Righetti, Lukosiute, and Black, GovAI, April 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 1); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 2); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 3)
- SAB/REP/1/26, March 2026Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Measuring Mid-2025 LLM-Assistance on Novice Performance in BiologyShen Zhou Hong. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Improving the Safety and Security of Biological ResearchThe White House. 2025. Executive Order 14292Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 1); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 2)
- U.S. Center for AI Standards and Innovation (CAISI)Cited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- UK AI Security InstituteCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Dual use of artificial-intelligence-powered drug discoveryFabio Urbina; Filippa Lentzos; Cédric Invernizzi; et al. 2022. Nature Machine Intelligencejournal articleCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 1); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 2)
- Intrinsic dataset features drive mutational effect prediction by protein language modelsLuiz C. Vieira. 2026. bioRxiv preprintpreprintCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Intelligent assessment: Putting emerging biotechnology threats in contextKathleen M. Vogel. 2013. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientistsjournal articleCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- warned in congressional testimonyCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- warned that AI could make it easierCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- De novo design of protein structure and function with RFdiffusionJoseph L. Watson; David Juergens; Nathaniel R. Bennett; et al. 2023. Naturejournal articleCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- where AI-designed biological agents must be converted into physical materialsCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 1); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 2); AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier (passage 3)
- Strengthening nucleic acid biosecurity screening against generative protein design toolsBruce J. Wittmann. 2025. Sciencejournal articleCited in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
Recommended reading
- CSETRecommended in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityRecommended in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
- NTI | bioRecommended in: AI as a Biosecurity Risk Amplifier
LLMs and Information Hazards
References
- 1975 Asilomar ConferenceCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- 2018 horsepox synthesis paperCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- 2025 GovAI reportCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Responsible Scaling Policy Version 3.4Anthropic. 2026. AnthropicCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Anthropic’s Constitutional AI preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Biosecurity Data Level (BDL) frameworkCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Chandra et al., 2026, preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- LLM Novice Uplift on Dual-Use, In Silico Biology TasksChen Bo Calvin Zhang. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 3); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 4)
- Cheng et al., 2026Cited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- The Operational Risks of AI in Large-Scale Biological Attacks: Results of a Red-Team StudyChristopher A. Mouton. 2024. RAND Research ReportCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 3)
- classroom exercise reported in a preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Claude 3 Model CardCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2)
- Constitutional ClassifiersCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- formally definedCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Frontier Model ForumCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Airborne Transmission of Influenza A/H5N1 Virus Between FerretsSander Herfst; Eefje J. A. Schrauwen; Martin Linster; et al. 2012. Sciencejournal articleCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- highlightedCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- January 2025Cited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Li, Mazeika, Hendrycks et al., 2024Cited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- When the Chatbot Leaks: Securing Patient-Facing Medical AI in the Age of Dual-Use Large Language ModelsMadrid-García A, Merino-Barbancho B, Rujas M. 2026. NEJM AIjournal articleCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Miller, 2024, preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- NIH DURCCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Managing Misuse Risk for Dual-Use Foundation ModelsGaithersburg MD NIST. 2025reportCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- October 2023 Executive Order 14110Cited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- OPCW Annex on ChemicalsCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- OpenAI (2024)Cited in: LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2)
- OpenAI reportedCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- OpenAI’s Model SpecCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- OpenAI’s Preparedness Framework v2Cited in: LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2)
- Research demonstratesCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 3)
- SAB/REP/1/26, March 2026Cited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Review of Anthropic's Chemical and Biological Risk Report: Claude Opus 4.6SecureBio. 2026. SecureBioCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Measuring Mid-2025 LLM-Assistance on Novice Performance in BiologyShen Zhou Hong. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 3); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 4)
- U.S. Center for AI Standards and Innovation (CAISI)Cited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- UK AI Security InstituteCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Boundary Point Jailbreaking: A new way to break the strongest AI defencesUK AI Security Institute. 2026. UK AI Security InstituteCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Virology Capabilities TestCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Wintermute et al., 2026, preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
References
- 2024 Science commentaryCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- 2025 GovAI reportCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- 2025 RAND Delphi studyCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- AI-enabled medical countermeasure developmentCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- AlphaFoldCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- AlphaFold2Cited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- AlphaGenomeCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Avsec et al., Nature, 2026Cited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Biosecurity Data Level (BDL) frameworkCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Genome modelling and design across all domains of life with Evo 2Garyk Brixi; Matthew G. Durrant; Jerome Ku; et al. 2026. Naturejournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- De novo Design of All-atom Biomolecular Interactions with RFdiffusion3Jasper Butcher. 2025. bioRxiv preprintpreprintCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- The Age of AI in the Life SciencesNational Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. National Academies PressCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- Critical Assessment of Protein Structure Prediction (CASP)Cited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- DeepMind’s biosecurity analysisCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- ESM3Cited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- EvolutionaryScale, 2024Cited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- Feldman & Feldman, 2025, workshop paperCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 3)
- Ikonomova et al., 2025Cited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- Generative design of bacteriophages with genome language modelsSamuel H. King. 2026. Sciencejournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- From capability uplift to capability governance: an AI–biosecurity stackLyly Luhachack; Nancy Connell; Kavita Berger. 2026. Frontiers in Microbiologyjournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Nobel Prize in ChemistryCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- Safety first: input screening for protein design toolsPhil Palmer; Nikki Teran; Nicole Wheeler; et al. 2026preprintCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- SecureDNACited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- SecureDNA uses computational methodsCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Spiez CONVERGENCECited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- De novo design of RNA pseudoknots with deep learningJill Townley; Wipapat Kladwang; David Baker; et al. 2026. Sciencejournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- Training code, inference code, and model weights are publicly availableCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Dual use of artificial-intelligence-powered drug discoveryFabio Urbina; Filippa Lentzos; Cédric Invernizzi; et al. 2022. Nature Machine Intelligencejournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- De novo design of protein structure and function with RFdiffusionJoseph L. Watson; David Juergens; Nathaniel R. Bennett; et al. 2023. Naturejournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Strengthening nucleic acid biosecurity screening against generative protein design toolsBruce J. Wittmann. 2025. Sciencejournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- The limits of sequence-based biosecurity screening tools in the age of AI-assisted protein designBruce J. Wittmann; Nicole E. Wheeler; Steven T. Murphy; et al. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Programmable design of synthetic plant immune receptors for pathogen protein recognitionHaocheng Zhu; Dandan Jiang; Qiao Zhang; et al. 2026. Sciencejournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
AI for Biosecurity Defense
References
- Frontier large language models and clinical recognition of Category A bioterrorism agents: a cross-sectional analysisRichard C. Armitage. 2026. Global Security: Health, Science and Policyjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- AIxBio: Opportunities to Strengthen Health SecurityAurelia Attal-Juncqua; Anita Cicero; Alex Zhu; et al. 2026. Health Securityjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- BlueDotCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 1); AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 2); AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 3)
- Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI)Cited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- The Age of AI in the Life SciencesNational Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. National Academies PressCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Discordant bioinformatic predictions of antimicrobial resistance from whole-genome sequencing data of bacterial isolates: an inter-laboratory studyRonan M. Doyle. 2020. Microbial Genomicsjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Contamination in Low Microbial Biomass Microbiome Studies: Issues and RecommendationsRaphael Eisenhofer; Jeremiah J. Minich; Clarisse Marotz; et al. 2019. Trends in Microbiologyjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- EPIWATCHCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- A real-time early warning system to anticipate respiratory disease outbreaks using transfer learningRaul Garrido-Garcia; Leonardo Clemente; Austin G. Meyer; et al. 2026. Nature Communicationsjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Guerra et al., 2026, RAND RR-A4999-1Cited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- HealthMapCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Assessing computational predictions of antimicrobial resistance phenotypes from microbial genomesKaixin Hu. 2024. Briefings in Bioinformaticsjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- IFP, Scaling Pathogen Detection, 2025Cited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Insilico MedicineCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Bridging antiviral drug discovery with a large language model-powered frameworkBoming Kang; Yang Zhao; Xingyu Chen; et al. 2026. Communications Biologyjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Kraken2Cited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- MetaPhlAnCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- resLens: genomic language models to enhance antibiotic resistance gene detectionMatthew Mollerus. 2026. npj Antimicrobials and Resistancejournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Nature, 2021Cited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 1); AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 2)
- AMR-GNN: a multi-representation graph neural network framework to enable genomic antimicrobial resistance predictionHoai-An Nguyen. 2026. Nature Communicationsjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- SecureBio DetectionCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 1); AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 2)
- A Deep Learning Approach to Antibiotic DiscoveryJonathan M. Stokes. 2020. Celljournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
References
- Africa CDC Nextstrain instanceCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
- Bhasin, Flyangolts, et al., 2026, preprintCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 1); Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 2)
- Nextstrain: real-time tracking of pathogen evolutionJames Hadfield; Colin Megill; Sidney M Bell; et al. 2018. Bioinformaticsjournal articleCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 1); Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 2)
- Global approaches to infectious disease surveillance and modelingMark P. Khurana; Joseph L.-H. Tsui; Bernardo Gutierrez; et al. 2026. Nature Medicinejournal articleCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
- LANL Biosurveillance GatewayCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
- Pre-symptomatic detection of COVID-19 from smartwatch dataTejaswini Mishra; Meng Wang; Ahmed A. Metwally; et al. 2020. Nature Biomedical Engineeringjournal articleCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 1); Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 2)
- NextstrainCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
- Assignment of epidemiological lineages in an emerging pandemic using the pangolin toolÁine O’Toole; Emily Scher; Anthony Underwood; et al. 2021. Virus Evolutionjournal articleCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 1); Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 2)
- PangolinCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
- Wearable sensor data and self-reported symptoms for COVID-19 detectionGiorgio Quer; Jennifer M. Radin; Matteo Gadaleta; et al. 2020. Nature Medicinejournal articleCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 1); Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 2)
- Assessment of Prolonged Physiological and Behavioral Changes Associated With COVID-19 InfectionJennifer M. Radin; Giorgio Quer; Edward Ramos; et al. 2021. JAMA Network Openjournal articleCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
- SecureBio DetectionCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
References
- Autonomous chemical research with large language modelsDaniil A. Boiko; Robert MacKnight; Ben Kline; et al. 2023. Naturejournal articleCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- Cloud Lab Security ConsortiumCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- cloud laboratoriesCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- Culture BiosciencesCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- Emerald Cloud LabCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology (passage 1); Cloud Labs and Automated Biology (passage 2)
- OpenClawCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- parallel to financial sector KYC requirementsCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- RANDCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology (passage 1); Cloud Labs and Automated Biology (passage 2)
- SAB/REP/1/26, March 2026Cited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- SIPRI’s 2025 analysisCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- Smith et al., 2026, preprintCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- SynthegoCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- University biofoundriesCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
References
- AI Agent Standards InitiativeCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Amodei, 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Anthropic, 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Anthropic, 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Autonomous chemical research with large language modelsDaniil A. Boiko; Robert MacKnight; Ben Kline; et al. 2023. Naturejournal articleCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Debenedetti et al., 2024Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- A multi-agent system for automating scientific discoveryAli E. Ghareeb; Benjamin Chang; Ludovico Mitchener; et al. 2026. Naturejournal articleCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Accelerating scientific discovery with Co-ScientistJuraj Gottweis; Wei-Hung Weng; Alexander Daryin; et al. 2026. Naturejournal articleCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Lee et al., 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts (passage 1); Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts (passage 2)
- Liu et al., 2026, preprintCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts (passage 1); Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts (passage 2)
- METR, 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- MoltbookCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- NIST CAISI, March 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts (passage 1); Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts (passage 2)
- NIST, 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- OpenAI, 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- OpenClawCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- OWASP Top 10 for Agentic ApplicationsCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Phuong et al., 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Provatas et al., 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Request for Information on AI agent securityCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Security Considerations for Artificial Intelligence AgentsCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Security Considerations for Multi-agent SystemsCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Smith et al., 2026, preprintCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- The Stack, January 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Tobias & Wahab, 2025Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
References
- Amodei, 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- ABC-Bench: An Agentic Bio-Capabilities Benchmark for BiosecurityAndrew Bo Liu. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Claude Opus 5 System CardAnthropic. 2026. AnthropicCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Improving Fable 5 SafeguardsAnthropic. 2026. AnthropicCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Responsible Scaling Policy Version 3.4Anthropic. 2026. AnthropicCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Anthropic, 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Baker et al., 2025, preprintCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Towards a Common Standard for Evaluating Frontier AI Safeguards Against Biological MisuseBhuvana Sudarshan. 2026. GovAI Technical ReportCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- The Operational Risks of AI in Large-Scale Biological Attacks: Results of a Red-Team StudyChristopher A. Mouton. 2024. RAND Research ReportCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Dev et al., 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- BioTIER: A Refusal Benchmark for Targeted Biological Risk MitigationEleanor M. Marshall. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Regulation (EU) 2024/1689, Article 55European Parliament and Council. 2024. Official Journal of the European UnionCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- International AI Safety Report 2026International AI Safety Report. 2026. International AI Safety ReportCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Expanding the AI Evaluation Toolbox with Statistical ModelsNIST Center for AI Standards and Innovation. 2026. National Institute of Standards and TechnologyreportCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Korbak et al., 2025, preprintCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- LatchBio, September 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- METR, 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- NIST AI 800-2 Practices for Automated Benchmark Evaluations of Language ModelsNIST Center for AI Standards and Innovation. 2026. National Institute of Standards and TechnologyCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- NTI | bio and Concordia AI, August 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- GPT-5.6 System CardOpenAI. 2026. OpenAI Deployment Safety HubCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- OpenAI, September 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Pachocki, 2026, essayCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Provatas et al., 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Review of Anthropic's Chemical and Biological Risk Report: Claude Opus 4.6SecureBio. 2026. SecureBioCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Measuring Mid-2025 LLM-Assistance on Novice Performance in BiologyShen Zhou Hong. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- A StrongREJECT for Empty JailbreaksAlexandra Souly. 2024. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systemsconference paperCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Boundary Point Jailbreaking: A new way to break the strongest AI defencesUK AI Security Institute. 2026. UK AI Security InstituteCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Principles for Evaluating Misuse Safeguards of Frontier AI SystemsUK AI Security Institute Safeguards Team. 2025. UK AI Security InstituteCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Wintermute et al., 2026, preprintCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks (passage 1); Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks (passage 2)
- xAI, September 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
Part V: Governance and Futures
International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
References
- 1540 CommitteeCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- 2026 eighth sessionCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- 2026 ninth sessionCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3)
- 42 participating countries and the European CommissionCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- Arms Control AssociationCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2)
- Arms Control AssociationCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 5); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 6); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 7); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 8)
- Australia GroupCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- Australia Group Common Control ListsCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)Cited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 5); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 6); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 7); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 8); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 9)
- Biopreparat programCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- Biosecurity LawCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- CBW EventsCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3)
- FAS 1998Cited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- ICRCCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4)
- The Sverdlovsk Anthrax Outbreak of 1979Matthew Meselson. 1994. Sciencejournal articleCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- NTICited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 5)
- NTICited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- PRIFCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- UN ODACited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 5); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 6)
- UN ODA CBMCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 5); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 6)
- UN Security Council Resolution 1540Cited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- UNIDIRCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3)
- Statement by the Chair of the 1540 CommitteeUnited Nations Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1540. 2025. United Nations Security CouncilCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- UNODA BWC meetingsCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3)
- UNODA membershipCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- VERTICCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2)
The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
References
- Arms Control AssociationCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- Arms Control AssociationCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 1); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 2)
- Chemistry WorldCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- Machine Learning of Toxicological Big Data Enables Read-Across Structure Activity Relationships (RASAR) Outperforming Animal Test ReproducibilityThomas Luechtefeld; Dan Marsh; Craig Rowlands; et al. 2018. Toxicological Sciencesjournal articleCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- OPCWCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- OPCWCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- OPCWCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 1); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 2); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 3); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 4); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 5); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 6)
- OPCWCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- OPCWCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- OPCW Annex on ChemicalsCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 1); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 2)
- OPCW IIT, 2021Cited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 1); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 2)
- OPCW, 2026Cited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- OPCW by the NumbersOrganisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. 2026. Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical WeaponsCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 1); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 2); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 3); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 4); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 5)
- RUSICited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- SAB/REP/1/26, March 2026Cited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- U.S. Army ACWA, July 2023Cited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- UN Press, 2020Cited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 1); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 2)
Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
References
- 2024 DURC/PEPP policyCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- 2025 guidanceCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- Developing a Risk-Scoring Tool for Artificial Intelligence-Enabled Biological Design: A Method to Assess the Risks of Using Artificial Intelligence to Modify Select Viral CapabilitiesAdeline E. Williams. 2026. RAND Corporation Research ReportCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- All Pandemic Hazards BillCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- America’s Living Library Act of 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Amodei, 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- anchored on LLM risks rather than foundation biological AI models (BAIMs)Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Responsible Scaling Policy Version 3.4Anthropic. 2026. AnthropicCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Anthropic, 2025Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Biddle, The Intercept, January 2024Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Biological Weapons ConventionCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- Biosecurity Data Level (BDL) frameworkCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Biosecurity Modernization and Innovation Act of 2026 (S. 3741)Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Carter and Butchello, 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- CNN, February 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- The Age of AI in the Life SciencesNational Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. National Academies PressCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- December 2025 EOCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Dettman et al., 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- DriveNetsCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- EO 14110Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- EO 14179Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- EU AI ActCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Know your scientist: KYC as biosecurity infrastructureJonathan Feldman. 2026. Frontiers in Microbiologyjournal articleCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Understanding biosafety practitioner perspectivesDavid R. Gillum; Christine Knight; Kathleen M. Vogel. 2025. Politics and the Life Sciencesjournal articleCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- The Missing Dimension in Clinical AI: Making Hidden Values VisibleCarey Goldberg; Ran D. Balicer; Mamatha Bhat; et al. 2026. NEJM AIjournal articleCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Guerra et al., 2026, RAND RR-A4999-1Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Heiligenstein, TIME, February 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Huang, NVIDIA Blog, March 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- International AI Safety Report 2026International AI Safety Report. 2026. International AI Safety ReportCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- International Network of AI Safety InstitutesCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- January 2025Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- July 2025 AI Action PlanCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Know Your Customer (KYC)Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Distributed Capability, Shared Vulnerability: International Governance of Biosafety and BiosecurityFilippa Lentzos; Gemma Bowsher. 2026. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicinejournal articleCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Lermen, Rogers-Smith, and Ladish, 2024, preprintCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- mSphere, 2025Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Implementation of the U.S. Government Policy for Stopping High-Risk Life Sciences ResearchNational Institutes of Health. 2026. NIH Guide for Grants and ContractsCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- NIH NOT-OD-25-127Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Managing Misuse Risk for Dual-Use Foundation ModelsGaithersburg MD NIST. 2025reportCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Noori et al., 2025, preprintCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- NTI AIxBio Global ForumCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Nutanix, August 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- October 2023 Executive Order 14110Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- OECD Synthetic Biology, AI and Automation AssessmentCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Office of Pandemic Preparedness and Response PolicyCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Framework for Nucleic Acid Synthesis ScreeningOffice of Science and Technology Policy. 2024. Executive Office of the President of the United StatesCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- Cotton, Klobuchar Introduce Bill to Establish Federal Biotech Security FrameworkOffice of Senator Tom Cotton. 2026. United States SenateCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- OpenAI’s Preparedness Framework v2Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- P.L. 117-328Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Pandemic Accord’s dangerous blind spotCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Pandemic Preparedness Strategy: building our capabilitiesCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- PREVENT Pandemics ActCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- RAND’s 2025 assessment of the Federal Select Agent ProgramCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- RSP Version 3.0Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- SecureDNACited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Select Agent ProgramCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- Spring 2026 scanCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Sutskever, 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Improving the Safety and Security of Biological ResearchThe White House. 2025. Executive Order 14292Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- U.S. Government Policy for Stopping High-Risk Life Sciences ResearchCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- A call for built-in biosecurity safeguards for generative AI toolsMengdi Wang; Zaixi Zhang; Amrit Singh Bedi; et al. 2025. Nature Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- Global Risk Index for AI-enabled Biological Tools (Public Report)Toby Webster; Richard Moulange; Barbara Del Castello; et al. 2025reportCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- WHA78.1Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- WHO, 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- WHO, July 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
The Future of Biosecurity
References
- 100 Days MissionCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- A 2022 WHO/World Bank report to the G20Cited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Confronting risks of mirror lifeKatarzyna P. Adamala. 2024. Sciencejournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Society's Resilience to a Total Loss of AgricultureAdin Richards. 2025. arXiv preprintCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- 10 big projects for reducing bio x-riskChris Bakerlee. 2026. Defenses in DepthCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI)Cited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- The COVID-19 Pandemic and the $16 Trillion VirusDavid M. Cutler; Lawrence H. Summers. 2020. JAMAjournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Sovereignty, equity, solidarity: progress on the Global Health Emergency CorpsScott F Dowell; Christophe Schmachtel; Abdi Mahamud; et al. 2025. BMJ Global Healthjournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Gates, 2022Cited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- HEPR frameworkCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Offline: Bill Gates and the fate of WHORichard Horton. 2022. The Lancetjournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Information Hazards in BiotechnologyGregory Lewis. 2019. Risk Analysisjournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- METR, 2026Cited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- 29 CFR 1910.134 Respiratory ProtectionOccupational Safety and Health Administration. 1998. Code of Federal RegulationsCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Face mask fit hacks: Improving the fit of KN95 masks and surgical masks with fit alteration techniquesEugenia O'Kelly. 2022. PLOS ONEjournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Pandemic FundCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Resilience and Sustainability TrustCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Sherwood-Randall and McQuade, August 2026Cited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Tips for Managing Personal Protective Equipment in Your Stockpile: Respirator Selection and PurchaseSusan Moore. 2024. NIOSH Science BulletinCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Mirror LifeUnited Nations Scientific Advisory Board. 2026. United Nations Secretary-General's Scientific Advisory BoardCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Pandemic security needs national leadershipMaria D. Van Kerkhove; Chikwe Ihekweazu. 2025. Sciencejournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Strengthening nucleic acid biosecurity screening against generative protein design toolsBruce J. Wittmann. 2025. Sciencejournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
Appendices
Glossary of Biosecurity Terms
References
- Confronting risks of mirror lifeKatarzyna P. Adamala. 2024. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Glossary of Biosecurity Terms
- Biosecurity Data Level (BDL) frameworkCited in: Glossary of Biosecurity Terms
- AI and biosecurity: The need for governanceDoni Bloomfield; Jaspreet Pannu; Alex W. Zhu; et al. 2024. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Glossary of Biosecurity Terms
- Mirror LifeUnited Nations Scientific Advisory Board. 2026. United Nations Secretary-General's Scientific Advisory BoardCited in: Glossary of Biosecurity Terms
Further Reading and Resources
References
- 2025 RAND Delphi studyCited in: Further Reading and Resources
- 2025 RAND report on protecting biological materialsCited in: Further Reading and Resources
- Developing a Risk-Scoring Tool for Artificial Intelligence-Enabled Biological Design: A Method to Assess the Risks of Using Artificial Intelligence to Modify Select Viral CapabilitiesAdeline E. Williams. 2026. RAND Corporation Research ReportCited in: Further Reading and Resources
- The Operational Risks of AI in Large-Scale Biological Attacks: Results of a Red-Team StudyChristopher A. Mouton. 2024. RAND Research ReportCited in: Further Reading and Resources
- DHS-commissioned RAND studyCited in: Further Reading and Resources
- To do no harm — and the most good — with AI in health careCarey Beth Goldberg; Laura Adams; David Blumenthal; et al. 2024. Nature Medicinejournal articleCited in: Further Reading and Resources
- International Health Regulations (2005)Cited in: Further Reading and Resources
- Framework for Nucleic Acid Synthesis ScreeningOffice of Science and Technology Policy. 2024. Executive Office of the President of the United StatesCited in: Further Reading and Resources
- RAND Europe Global Risk Index (2025)Cited in: Further Reading and Resources
- RAND’s 2024 report on securing commercial nucleic acid synthesisCited in: Further Reading and Resources
Recommended reading
- 80,000 Hours PodcastRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- ABSA InternationalRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- anthropic.comRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- BARDARecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)Recommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- BioRisk Assessment Models (BioRAMs)Recommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Biosecurity & Pandemic PreparednessRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Biosecurity and BioterrorismRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Biosecurity CentralRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Category A agentsRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- CDC BMBLRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- cdc.govRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Center for AI Safety: Introduction to AI Safety, Ethics, and SocietyRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Chemical Weapons ConventionRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- CIDRAPRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI)Recommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- csis.orgRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- deepmind.googleRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- ELBIRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- EMBO ReportsRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Expert-curated outbreak reportsRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- fao.orgRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Georgetown UniversityRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- GISAIDRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Harvard DBMIRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Health SecurityRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Introduction to AI Safety, Ethics, and SocietyDan Hendrycks. 2024Recommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- HHS AI Use Case InventoryRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- HHS P3CO FrameworkRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- iarpa.govRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- ICTVRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Introduction to AI Safety, Ethics, and SocietyRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources (passage 1); Further Reading and Resources (passage 2)
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- longtermresilience.orgRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- MITRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- NatureRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- NCBI GenBankRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- NextstrainRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- NTIRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources (passage 1); Further Reading and Resources (passage 2)
- openai.comRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Our World in DataRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Pathogen Genomics for Public HealthRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- PDB (Protein Data Bank)Recommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- PNASRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- rand.orgRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- rand.org/meselsonRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- safe.aiRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- ScienceRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Select Agent ProgramRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Stanford CISACRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- Stat NewsRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- The LancetRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- The ScientistRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- This Week in VirologyRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- usamriid.health.milRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- ViralZoneRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- WHO Laboratory Biosafety Manual (4th Edition)Recommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- woah.orgRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
- World Health OrganizationRecommended in: Further Reading and Resources
Building a Biosecurity Career
Recommended reading
- 80,000 Hours Job BoardRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- AAAS S&T Policy FellowshipRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- BARDARecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Biosecurity & Pandemic PreparednessRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Biosecurity CentralRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- CDCRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Chatham HouseRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Council on Foreign RelationsRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- CSETRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- csis.orgRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- DHSRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- DoDRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- ELBIRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Georgetown UniversityRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Gryphon Scientific (now Deloitte)Recommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Horizon FellowshipRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- iarpa.govRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- iGEM FoundationRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Know Your Customer (KYC)Recommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Mid-Career Biodefense Bootcamp FellowshipRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- MIT Synthetic Biology (Dept. of Biological Engineering)Recommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- NTIRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- rand.orgRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Schmidt SciencesRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- SecureBioRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Stanford CISACRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- State DepartmentRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
- Wellcome TrustRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career
Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
References
- 11,000 deathsCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- 7 million confirmed deathsCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- accidentally shippedCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Australia GroupCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- BiopreparatCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Bioterrorism Rapid Response and Advanced Technology (BRRAT) laboratoryCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- CDC MMWR, 2024Cited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- CDC reports 71 total human A(H5) cases in the U.S. since February 2024Cited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- CDC, January 2025Cited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Dr. Bruce IvinsCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Duelfer Report (2004)Cited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Federation of American Scientists, citing UNSCOMCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Food and Agriculture Organization declared rinderpest eradicatedCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- forgotten vials of smallpoxCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- GlobalSecurity.orgCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- International Gene Synthesis ConsortiumCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Ken AlibekCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- letters containing Bacillus anthracis sporesCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- May 8, 1980Cited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- The Sverdlovsk Anthrax Outbreak of 1979Matthew Meselson. 1994. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes (passage 1); Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes (passage 2)
- National Academy of SciencesCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Office of Science and Technology Policy released the Framework for Nucleic Acid Synthesis ScreeningCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- official inquiryCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- outbreakCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- The Reemergent 1977 H1N1 Strain and the Gain-of-Function DebateMichelle Rozo; Gigi Kwik Gronvall. 2015. mBiojournal articleCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- SecureDNACited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Select Agent ProgramCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- spread into the communityCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- technician had removed a clogged air filterCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes (passage 1); Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes (passage 2)
- The 2005 International Health RegulationsCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- USDA confirmed H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza in dairy cattleCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
Course Syllabus Template
Recommended reading
- Responsible Scaling Policy Version 3.4Anthropic. 2026. AnthropicRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- Biotechnology Research in an Age of TerrorismRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- The Operational Risks of AI in Large-Scale Biological Attacks: Results of a Red-Team StudyChristopher A. Mouton. 2024. RAND Research ReportRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- evolved through distinct erasRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- Global Guidance Framework for the Responsible Use of the Life SciencesRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- Model Evaluation for Extreme RisksRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI) BiosecurityRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- Toxic Terror: Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical and Biological WeaponsRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template