Appendix J: Bibliography
Sources are listed in chapter order. Follow Cited in to return to the source’s context. Recommended reading is listed separately.
Entries retain the citation label when publication details are incomplete. Inclusion in this bibliography does not establish that a source supports every claim made about it.
Search results
- 100 Days MissionCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- 11,000 deathsCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- 1540 CommitteeCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- 189 States Parties and four Signatory StatesCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- 1975 Asilomar ConferenceCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- 1977 H1N1 re-emergenceCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- 1978 Birmingham smallpox outbreakCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- 2004 SARS Beijing outbreakCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 3)
- 2014 discovery of variola-labelled vialsCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- 2014 paper in eLifeCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- 2016 U.S. Intelligence Community Worldwide Threat AssessmentCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- 2018 horsepox synthesis paperCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- 2018 study by Kyrou et al. in Nature BiotechnologyCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- 2022 capstone exercise led by the Robert Koch InstituteCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- 2023 HHS guidanceCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology; DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2)
- 2023 preprintCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 1); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 2); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 3)
- 2024 DURC/PEPP policyCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- 2024 Science commentaryCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- 2025 GovAI reportCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk; LLMs and Information Hazards; AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- 2025 guidanceCited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- 2025 RAND Delphi studyCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design; Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- 2025 RAND report on protecting biological materialsCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint; Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- 2025 Scale AI/SecureBio preprintCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- 2026 eighth sessionCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- 2026 Nature Methods proposal for the MIHCLE reporting standardCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- 2026 ninth sessionCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3)
- 3Blue1Brown’s neural network seriesRecommended in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- 42 participating countries and the European CommissionCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- 7 million confirmed deathsCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- 80,000 Hours Job BoardRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- 80,000 Hours PodcastRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- A 2022 WHO/World Bank report to the G20Cited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- a SARS outbreak in China traced back to a laboratoryCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- A Transformative AI Strategy for EuropeA Transformative AI Strategy for Europe contributors. 2026. Independent expert strategywebpageCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- A Transformative AI Strategy for EuropeA Transformative AI Strategy for Europe contributors. 2026. Independent expert strategytechnical reportCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- A Transformative AI Strategy for EuropeA Transformative AI Strategy for Europe contributors. 2026. Independent expert strategywebpageCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- AAAS S&T Policy FellowshipRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- The Global Health Security Index is not predictive of coronavirus pandemic responses among Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development countriesEnoch J. Abbey. 2020. PLOS ONEjournal articleCited in: Executive Summary; What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); The Biological Threat Landscape
- Beyond sequence similarity: toward function-based screening of nucleic acid synthesisGary R. Abel Jr; Tessa Alexanian; Craig Bartling; et al. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- ABSA InternationalRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- accidentally shippedCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Evaluating AI-assisted customer verification for synthetic nucleic acid screeningAlejandro Acelas; Hanna Palya; Kevin Flyangolts; et al. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- AI and the Future of Medical Countermeasures to Protect Against Biological ThreatsAmesh A. Adalja. 2026. Open Forum Infectious Diseasesjournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Confronting risks of mirror lifeKatarzyna P. Adamala. 2024. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 3); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 4); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 5); The Future of Biosecurity; Glossary of Biosecurity Terms
- Developing a Risk-Scoring Tool for Artificial Intelligence-Enabled Biological Design: A Method to Assess the Risks of Using Artificial Intelligence to Modify Select Viral CapabilitiesAdeline E. Williams. 2026. RAND Corporation Research ReportCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence; Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Society's Resilience to a Total Loss of AgricultureAdin Richards. 2025. arXiv preprintCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Africa CDC Nextstrain instanceCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
- Africa Pathogen Genomics Initiative (Africa PGI)Cited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 1); Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 2)
- Africa PGICited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- Africa PGICited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- AI Agent Standards InitiativeCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- AI-enabled medical countermeasure developmentCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Matter-to-LifeAlfred P. Sloan Foundation. 2025. Alfred P. Sloan FoundationCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- All Pandemic Hazards BillCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- AlphaFoldCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk; AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- AlphaFold 3’s biosecurity implicationsCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- AlphaFold/AlphaFold3Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- AlphaFold2Cited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- AlphaGenomeCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- ASM Launches Detection to Protection InitiativeAmerican Society for Microbiology. 2026. ASM.orgorganizational press releaseCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Detection to Protection InitiativeAmerican Society for Microbiology. 2026. ASM.orgorganizational initiative webpageCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio ConvergenceRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- America’s Living Library Act of 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Amodei, 2026Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk; Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts; Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- anchored on LLM risks rather than foundation biological AI models (BAIMs)Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Andrej Karpathy’s tutorialsRecommended in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- ABC-Bench: An Agentic Bio-Capabilities Benchmark for BiosecurityAndrew Bo Liu. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Anthropic Claude protein-design campaign commentaryAndrew Dunn. 2026. LinkedInwebpageCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk; Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- AutoRedTeamer: Autonomous Red Teaming with Lifelong Attack IntegrationAndy Zhou; Kevin Wu; Francesco Pinto; Zhaorun Chen; Yi Zeng; Yu Yang; Shuang Yang; Sanmi Koyejo; James Zou; Bo Li. 2025. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 38conference paperCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- DNA Synthesis ProductsAnsa Biotechnologies. 2026. Ansa BiotechnologiesCited in: Executive Summary; DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- AnthraxCited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2)
- Anthrax lettersCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- Claude accelerates protein design and analytical chemistryAnthropic. 2026. AnthropicwebpageCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk; Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Claude discovers a novel enzyme systemAnthropic. 2026. AnthropicwebpageCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Claude Fable 5.1 & Claude Mythos 5.1 System CardAnthropic. 2026. Anthropictechnical reportCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Claude Opus 5 System CardAnthropic. 2026. AnthropicCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Improving Fable 5 SafeguardsAnthropic. 2026. AnthropicCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Introducing Claude Fable 5.1 and Claude Mythos 5.1Anthropic. 2026. AnthropicwebpageCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Introducing the Life Sciences Verification ProgramAnthropic. 2026. AnthropicwebpageCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk; Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Responsible Scaling Policy Version 3.4Anthropic. 2026. AnthropicCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk; LLMs and Information Hazards; Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio ConvergenceRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- System Card: Claude Opus 5.5Anthropic. 2026. AnthropicSystem cardCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk; Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Anthropic, 2025Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Anthropic, 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Anthropic, 2026Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk; Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts; Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- anthropic.comRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Anthropic’s Constitutional AI preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- anti-Plasmodium effector genesCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- April 29, 2024 OSTP Framework for Nucleic Acid Synthesis ScreeningCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3)
- Arita, 2014Cited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Frontier large language models and clinical recognition of Category A bioterrorism agents: a cross-sectional analysisRichard C. Armitage. 2026. Global Security: Health, Science and Policyjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Arms Control AssociationCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2)
- Arms Control AssociationCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- Arms Control AssociationCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 5); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 6); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 7); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 8)
- Arms Control AssociationCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 1); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 2)
- Armstrong et al. describe in the New England Journal of MedicineCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- Artificial Intelligence and Biosecurity Issues2026reportCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- ASMCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2)
- ASPRCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- ASPR TRACIECited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- attacks from natural outbreaksCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- AIxBio: Opportunities to Strengthen Health SecurityAurelia Attal-Juncqua; Anita Cicero; Alex Zhu; et al. 2026. Health Securityjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Attention Is All You NeedCited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- Aum ShinrikyoCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2); Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2)
- Australia GroupCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint; International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention; Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Australia Group Common Control ListsCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint; International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- automated event-based surveillanceCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Avsec et al., Nature, 2026Cited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- B-SPAN Executive BranchCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio ConvergenceRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- B-SPAN Legislative BranchCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio ConvergenceRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Baker et al., 2025, preprintCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Balancing Biotechnology Innovation and Biosecurity: Securing U.S. Leadership in a Global Race2026. U.S. House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, Subcommittee on Investigations and OversightreportCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- BARDACited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)Recommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs; Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- What Does "Autonomous" Actually Mean in a Wet Lab?Steph Batalis. 2026. Substack — Notes on AI & BiologyessayCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- Battelle, 2017Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- A system capable of verifiably and privately screening global DNA synthesisCarsten Baum; Jens Berlips; Walther Chen; et al. 2026. National Science Reviewjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Benchtop DNA synthesizersCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Bhasin, Flyangolts, et al., 2026, preprintCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 1); Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 2)
- Bhatt et al., 2026, preprintCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- Towards a Common Standard for Evaluating Frontier AI Safeguards Against Biological MisuseBhuvana Sudarshan. 2026. GovAI Technical ReportCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Biddle, The Intercept, January 2024Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- BioBricks RegistryCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2)
- International, cross-sector collaboration commits nearly $2 billion to build foundational data for AI models to predict and treat diseaseBiohub. 2026. PR Newswirepress releaseCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- biological program largely failedCited in: What Is Biosecurity?; The Biological Threat Landscape
- Biological weaponsCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Biological Weapons ConventionCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics; DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint; Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)Cited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); The Biological Threat Landscape; International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 5); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 6); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 7); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 8); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 9)Recommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- BiopreparatCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Biopreparat programCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- BioRisk Assessment Models (BioRAMs)Cited in: Laboratory Biosafety and BiosecurityRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL)Cited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- biosafety incidents occurCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- Biosafety.beCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3)
- BioSecure frameworkCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Biosecurity & Pandemic PreparednessRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs; Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- biosecurity analysesCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Biosecurity and BioterrorismRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Biosecurity CentralRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs; Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- Biosecurity CentralCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Biosecurity CentralCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Biosecurity Data Level (BDL) frameworkCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards; AI-Enabled Pathogen Design; Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence; Glossary of Biosecurity Terms
- Biosecurity LawCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- Biosecurity Modernization and Innovation Act of 2026 (S. 3741)Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Biotechnology Research in an Age of TerrorismRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- Bioterrorism Rapid Response and Advanced Technology (BRRAT) laboratoryCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- National Blueprint for Biodefense (2024 PDF)Bipartisan Commission on Biodefense. 2024. Bipartisan Commission on BiodefensereportCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- The National Blueprint for BiodefenseBipartisan Commission on Biodefense. 2024. Bipartisan Commission on BiodefensereportCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio ConvergenceRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- An Update to The Apollo Program for Biodefense Winning the Race Against Biological ThreatsBipartisan Commission on Biodefense. 2026. Bipartisan Commission on BiodefensereportCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Bipartisan Commission on BiodefenseBipartisan Commission on Biodefense. 2026. Bipartisan Commission on BiodefensewebpageRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Reports — Bipartisan Commission on BiodefenseBipartisan Commission on Biodefense. 2026. Bipartisan Commission on BiodefensewebpageRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Bipartisan Commission on Biodefense B-SPAN launch, 10 Jul 2024Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- Laboratory-acquired infections and pathogen escapes worldwide between 2000 and 2021: a scoping reviewStuart D Blacksell; Sandhya Dhawan; Marina Kusumoto; et al. 2024. The Lancet Microbejournal articleCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- AI and biosecurity: The need for governanceDoni Bloomfield; Jaspreet Pannu; Alex W. Zhu; et al. 2024. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Glossary of Biosecurity Terms
- BlueDotCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 1); AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 2); AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 3)
- Blueprint Biosecurity, 2025Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Artificial intelligence, pharmaceutical development and dual-use research of concern: a call to actionChristopher Bobier; Daniel J Hurst; John Obeid. 2025. Journal of Medical Ethicsjournal articleCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Autonomous chemical research with large language modelsDaniil A. Boiko; Robert MacKnight; Ben Kline; et al. 2023. Naturejournal articleCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology; Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Boston UniversityCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- BotulismCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- BritannicaCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- Genome modelling and design across all domains of life with Evo 2Garyk Brixi; Matthew G. Durrant; Jerome Ku; et al. 2026. Naturejournal articleCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk; AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- BrucellosisCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Bulletin of the Atomic ScientistsCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Far-UVC light (222 nm) efficiently and safely inactivates airborne human coronavirusesManuela Buonanno; David Welch; Igor Shuryak; et al. 2020. Scientific Reportsjournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Buonanno et al., 2024Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Bureau BiosecurityCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) export controlCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- De novo Design of All-atom Biomolecular Interactions with RFdiffusion3Jasper Butcher. 2025. bioRxiv preprintpreprintCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- called the travel bans travel apartheidCited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- The changing economics of DNA synthesisRobert Carlson. 2009. Nature Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 3)
- Cartagena ProtocolCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Implementing emerging customer screening standards for nucleic acid synthesisSarah R. Carter; Lucas Boldrini; Tessa Alexanian. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Carter and Butchello, 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Category A agentsCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2); Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2); Pathogens of Concern (passage 3)Recommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- CBW EventsCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3)
- CDCCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- CDCCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- CDCCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 3)Recommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- CDC BMBLCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 4); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 5); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 6); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 7); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 8); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 9)
- CDC BMBLCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2)Recommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- CDC Influenza AntiviralsCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- CDC MMWR, 2024Cited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- CDC NWSS FAQCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- CDC reports 71 total human A(H5) cases in the U.S. since February 2024Cited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- CDC, January 2025Cited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- CDC, June 2026Cited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 3)
- cdc.govRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- CDC/NIOSH Certified Equipment ListCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- CDC/NIOSH GUVCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 3); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 4)
- CDC/NIOSH Hierarchy of ControlsCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- CDC/NIOSH PPECited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- CDC/NIOSH Ventilation FAQCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 3)
- CDC/NIOSH-approved respiratorsCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Center for AI Safety: Introduction to AI Safety, Ethics, and SocietyRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- CEPICited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- CFRCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6)
- Champer et al., 2019Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Artificial intelligence and biosecurity: capabilities, threat pathways, and defense-in-depth governanceCandace S. Y. Chan. 2026. arXiv preprintpreprintCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Chandra et al., 2026, preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Chatham HouseRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
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- Autonomous de novo protein binder design with ClaudeClaude Science. 2026. Anthropictechnical reportCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
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- ICRCCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4)
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- WHO SAGO, 2025Cited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- WHO Scientific Advisory Group for the Origins of Novel Pathogens (SAGO) independent assessmentCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- WHO, 2020Cited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 1); AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 2); AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 3); AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 4)
- WHO, 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- WHO, 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- WHO, 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- WHO, December 2025Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 3); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 4)
- WHO, July 2026Cited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- WHO, November 2021Cited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 1); Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 2)
- WHO-China joint studyCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- Wintermute et al., 2026, preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards; Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks (passage 1); Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks (passage 2)
- with documented compliance concerns under the BWCCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Strengthening nucleic acid biosecurity screening against generative protein design toolsBruce J. Wittmann. 2025. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Executive Summary; DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 1); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 2); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design; The Future of Biosecurity
- The limits of sequence-based biosecurity screening tools in the age of AI-assisted protein designBruce J. Wittmann; Nicole E. Wheeler; Steven T. Murphy; et al. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- woah.orgRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- World Health Assembly adopted resolution WHA77.7Cited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- World Health Emergencies programCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- World Health OrganizationCited in: Attribution and Biological ForensicsRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- International Health Regulations (2005), consolidated text including amendments adopted in 2014, 2022 and 2024World Health Organization. 2026. World Health OrganizationCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- One healthWorld Health Organization. 2026. World Health OrganizationCited in: Executive Summary; What Is Biosecurity?; The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- High-throughput synthesis of DNA fragments by molecular self-assembly of overlapping oligonucleotidesZhiguang Wu; Zhengyang Sun; Shuangying Jiang; et al. 2026. Nature Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- xAI, September 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Total chemical synthesis of a thermostable enzyme capable of polymerase chain reactionWeiliang Xu. 2017. Cell Discoveryjournal articleCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Autonomous AI agents discover reverse transcriptases with tandem repeat arraysYoon; Athukoralage; Ameisen; Kauderer-Abrams; Perry; Durrant. 2026. AnthropicpreprintCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Mirror-image T7 transcription of chirally inverted ribosomal and functional RNAsYuan Xu. 2022. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Zakaria et al., 2026Cited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Programmable design of synthetic plant immune receptors for pathogen protein recognitionHaocheng Zhu; Dandan Jiang; Qiao Zhang; et al. 2026. Sciencejournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
Welcome
References
- Introducing SynthID BioGoogle DeepMind. 2026. Google DeepMind Blogblog postCited in: Welcome
- Better biosecurity monitors for AI agents via protein embeddingsGoodfire. 2026. Goodfire researchblog postCited in: Welcome
- Function-preserving watermarking of AI-generated proteinsDavid Stutz; Alexander I. Cowen-Rivers; Guillermo Ortiz-Jimenez; et al. 2026. Naturejournal articleCited in: Welcome
Executive Summary
References
- The Global Health Security Index is not predictive of coronavirus pandemic responses among Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development countriesEnoch J. Abbey. 2020. PLOS ONEjournal articleCited in: Executive Summary
- DNA Synthesis ProductsAnsa Biotechnologies. 2026. Ansa BiotechnologiesCited in: Executive Summary
- LLM Novice Uplift on Dual-Use, In Silico Biology TasksChen Bo Calvin Zhang. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: Executive Summary
- The Operational Risks of AI in Large-Scale Biological Attacks: Results of a Red-Team StudyChristopher A. Mouton. 2024. RAND Research ReportCited in: Executive Summary
- SYNTAX DNA Printing SystemDNA Script. 2026. DNA ScriptCited in: Executive Summary
- Common Mechanism for DNA Synthesis ScreeningInternational Biosecurity and Biosafety Initiative for Science. 2026. International Biosecurity and Biosafety Initiative for ScienceCited in: Executive Summary
- Harmonized Screening Protocol v3.0International Gene Synthesis Consortium. 2024. International Gene Synthesis ConsortiumCited in: Executive Summary
- Global trends in emerging infectious diseasesKate E. Jones. 2008. Naturejournal articleCited in: Executive Summary
- The Sverdlovsk Anthrax Outbreak of 1979Matthew Meselson. 1994. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Executive Summary
- Implementation of the U.S. Government Policy for Stopping High-Risk Life Sciences ResearchNational Institutes of Health. 2026. NIH Guide for Grants and ContractsCited in: Executive Summary
- eProtein DiscoveryNuclera. 2026. NucleraCited in: Executive Summary
- Framework for Nucleic Acid Synthesis ScreeningOffice of Science and Technology Policy. 2024. Executive Office of the President of the United StatesCited in: Executive Summary
- Cotton, Klobuchar Introduce Bill to Establish Federal Biotech Security FrameworkOffice of Senator Tom Cotton. 2026. United States SenateCited in: Executive Summary
- Deployment of OPCW expert team to the Syrian Arab Republic finds chemical weapons and related materialsOrganisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. 2026. Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical WeaponsCited in: Executive Summary
- OPCW by the NumbersOrganisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. 2026. Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical WeaponsCited in: Executive Summary
- Measuring Mid-2025 LLM-Assistance on Novice Performance in BiologyShen Zhou Hong. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: Executive Summary
- Improving the Safety and Security of Biological ResearchThe White House. 2025. Executive Order 14292Cited in: Executive Summary
- Statement by the Chair of the 1540 CommitteeUnited Nations Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1540. 2025. United Nations Security CouncilCited in: Executive Summary
- U.S. Government Policy for Stopping High-Risk Life Sciences ResearchUnited States Government. 2026. The White HouseCited in: Executive Summary
- Strengthening nucleic acid biosecurity screening against generative protein design toolsBruce J. Wittmann. 2025. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Executive Summary
- One healthWorld Health Organization. 2026. World Health OrganizationCited in: Executive Summary
Part I: Foundations
What Is Biosecurity?
References
- 189 States Parties and four Signatory StatesCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- The Global Health Security Index is not predictive of coronavirus pandemic responses among Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development countriesEnoch J. Abbey. 2020. PLOS ONEjournal articleCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2)
- Anthrax lettersCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- Aum ShinrikyoCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2)
- biological program largely failedCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)Cited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2)
- Biopreparat programCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2)
- Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL)Cited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- CDCCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 3)
- CDC BMBLCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2)
- evolved through distinct erasCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2)
- Geneva ProtocolCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2)
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 3)
- Global trends in emerging infectious diseasesKate E. Jones. 2008. Naturejournal articleCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- laboratory biosecurityCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- letters containing Bacillus anthracis sporesCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- NTICited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 3)
- One HealthCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- Quadripartite One Health Joint Plan of ActionCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- shared responsibilityCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- six categories, 37 indicators, and 171 questionsCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
- WHOCited in: What Is Biosecurity? (passage 1); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 2); What Is Biosecurity? (passage 3)
- One healthWorld Health Organization. 2026. World Health OrganizationCited in: What Is Biosecurity?
The Biological Threat Landscape
References
- 1977 H1N1 re-emergenceCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- 1978 Birmingham smallpox outbreakCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- 2004 SARS Beijing outbreakCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 3)
- 2014 discovery of variola-labelled vialsCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- a SARS outbreak in China traced back to a laboratoryCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- The Global Health Security Index is not predictive of coronavirus pandemic responses among Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development countriesEnoch J. Abbey. 2020. PLOS ONEjournal articleCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Arita, 2014Cited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Aum ShinrikyoCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- biological program largely failedCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Biological weaponsCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)Cited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Biopreparat programCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- Laboratory-acquired infections and pathogen escapes worldwide between 2000 and 2021: a scoping reviewStuart D Blacksell; Sandhya Dhawan; Marina Kusumoto; et al. 2024. The Lancet Microbejournal articleCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Category A agentsCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- COVID-19Cited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- EbolaCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- X post on the Irkutsk anti-plague institute responseKevin Esvelt. 2026. Xsocial media postCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Janet Parker became the last person recorded to die from smallpoxCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Global trends in emerging infectious diseasesKate E. Jones. 2008. Naturejournal articleCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 3); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 4)
- Laboratory-acquired infectionsCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Laboratory-acquired infections (LAIs)Cited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- letters containing Bacillus anthracis sporesCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- Estimation of Pneumonic Plague Transmission in Madagascar, August–November 2017Majumder et al. 2018. PLoS Currentsjournal articleCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Hospitals in Irkutsk impose quarantines after an employee at an anti-plague institute dies. Russia’s public health agency says she died of pneumonia and the epidemiological situation remains ‘stable.’Meduza. 2026. MeduzanewsCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Nearly 200 People Under Observation After Irkutsk Lab Worker Dies From PlagueThe Moscow Times. 2026. The Moscow TimesnewsCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Plague control guidelineNSW Health. 2026. NSW HealthguidanceCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Offensive biological weapons programCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- other CDC mishandlings of dangerous pathogensCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- pandemic influenzaCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
- Pneumonic Plague Transmission, Moramanga, Madagascar, 2015Ramasindrazana et al. 2017. Emerging Infectious Diseasesjournal articleCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Siberian Anti-Plague Institute Staff Isolated After Worker's DeathRFE/RL's Siberia.Realities; Alex Raufoglu. 2026. Radio Free Europe/Radio LibertynewsCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- Plague is Scary but That Doesn't Make It the Next PandemicBK. Titanji. 2026. BK.'s SubstackopinionCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- vials labeled variola (smallpox virus)Cited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- WHOCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- WHO SAGO, 2025Cited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- with documented compliance concerns under the BWCCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- World Health Emergencies programCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape
- One healthWorld Health Organization. 2026. World Health OrganizationCited in: The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 1); The Biological Threat Landscape (passage 2)
Pathogens of Concern
References
- AnthraxCited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2)
- Aum ShinrikyoCited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2)
- BotulismCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- BrucellosisCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Category A agentsCited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2); Pathogens of Concern (passage 3)
- CDCCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- declared eradicated (1980)Cited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2)
- EbolaCited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2)
- FDACited in: Pathogens of Concern
- FDA Smallpox PreparednessCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Federal Select Agent ProgramCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- FSAPCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- HantavirusesCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Lassa feverCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- letters containing Bacillus anthracis sporesCited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2)
- Nipah virusCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- PlagueCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Pneumonic plagueCited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2)
- Q FeverCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- RabiesCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Ricin toxinCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Select Agent ProgramCited in: Pathogens of Concern (passage 1); Pathogens of Concern (passage 2); Pathogens of Concern (passage 3)
- SmallpoxCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Tick-borne encephalitis virusesCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- Plague is Scary but That Doesn't Make It the Next PandemicBK. Titanji. 2026. BK.'s SubstackopinionCited in: Pathogens of Concern
- TularemiaCited in: Pathogens of Concern
Part II: Operational Biosecurity
Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
References
- 2026 Nature Methods proposal for the MIHCLE reporting standardCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- BioRisk Assessment Models (BioRAMs)Cited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Biosafety.beCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3)
- Biosecurity CentralCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Biosecurity CentralCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Boston UniversityCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Bureau BiosecurityCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- CDC BMBLCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 4); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 5); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 6); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 7); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 8); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 9)
- CDC/NIOSH Certified Equipment ListCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- CDC/NIOSH Hierarchy of ControlsCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- CDC/NIOSH PPECited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- CDC/NIOSH-approved respiratorsCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Cornell EHSCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Cyberbiosecurity Implementation in Laboratory Settings: A Scoping ReviewAlejandra Cova; Ming Ong; Leo Shih; et al. 2026. Applied Biosafetyjournal articleCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Cyberbiosecurity in high-containment laboratoriesElizabeth Crawford; Adam Bobrow; Landy Sun; et al. 2023. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Measures to strengthen international biosafety and biosecurity practicesEtienne Decroly; Patrick Berche; Ali Asy; et al. 2026. PLOS Biologyjournal articleCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- FSAPCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3)
- GAO-26-107338Cited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 4)
- Global BioLabs Report 2023Global BioLabs. 2023. King's College LondonreportCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- HHS ASPRCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Lab ManagerCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 4); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 5)
- laboratory biosecurityCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Key animal and plant disease lab stalled by biosafety issuesKate Jen Li. 2026. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- NIHCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- NIHCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- NIHCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 4)
- NIH DURCCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- NIH PracticesCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- NOT-OD-26-112Cited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- 29 CFR 1910.134 Respiratory ProtectionOccupational Safety and Health Administration. 1998. Code of Federal RegulationsCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Cybersecurity of genomic dataRonald Pulivarti; Natalia Martin; Frederick R Byers; et al. 2023reportCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Face shields for infection control: A reviewRaymond J. Roberge. 2016. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygienejournal articleCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- Select Agent ProgramCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Select Agents ProgramCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3)
- UC San DiegoCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 4); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 5)
- UNCCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- University of HawaiiCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2)
- University of HoustonCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- USDA OIG, 2026, Exhibit ACited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- UTRGVCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 1); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 2); Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity (passage 3)
- Personal protective equipment for preventing highly infectious diseases due to exposure to contaminated body fluids in healthcare staffJos H Verbeek; Blair Rajamaki; Sharea Ijaz; et al. 2020. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviewsjournal articleCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- WHO Laboratory Biosafety Manual, Fourth EditionCited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
- World Health Assembly adopted resolution WHA77.7Cited in: Laboratory Biosafety and Biosecurity
Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
References
- ASMCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2)
- Artificial intelligence, pharmaceutical development and dual-use research of concern: a call to actionChristopher Bobier; Daniel J Hurst; John Obeid. 2025. Journal of Medical Ethicsjournal articleCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- CDCCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- CFRCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6)
- CIDRAPCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 7); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 8); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 9); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 10)
- COGR, August 2026Cited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- FASCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 7); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 8); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 9); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 10)
- Florescu-Ciobotaru and Workman, August 2026Cited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- Fouchier et al., 2012Cited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 7)
- Fouchier et al., 2013Cited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2)
- May 2024 USG Policy for Oversight of DURC and Pathogens with Enhanced Pandemic PotentialCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- Implementation of the U.S. Government Policy for Stopping High-Risk Life Sciences ResearchNational Institutes of Health. 2026. NIH Guide for Grants and ContractsCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- NIHCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 7); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 8); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 9)
- NIHCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 7); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 8); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 9); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 10); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 11)
- NIHCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- NIH NSABBCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6)
- NSABB, 2023Cited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- NTICited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 5); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 6)
- pandemic influenzaCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- Dual-use capabilities of concern of biological AI modelsJaspreet Pannu; Doni Bloomfield; Robert MacKnight; et al. 2025. PLOS Computational Biologyjournal articleCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- PREVENT Pandemics ActCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- RAND Meselson Center (2025)Cited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- Senate CommitteeCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 3); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 4)
- StanfordCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 1); Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) (passage 2)
- The New AtlantisCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- Improving the Safety and Security of Biological ResearchThe White House. 2025. Executive Order 14292Cited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
- U.S. Government Policy for Stopping High-Risk Life Sciences ResearchUnited States Government. 2026. The White HouseCited in: Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC)
Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
References
- Armstrong et al. describe in the New England Journal of MedicineCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- attacks from natural outbreaksCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- automated event-based surveillanceCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Bhatt et al., 2026, preprintCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- BritannicaCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- CDC NWSS FAQCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- CDC, June 2026Cited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 3)
- decision tool in Annex 2Cited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Data, disease and diplomacy: GISAID's innovative contribution to global healthStefan Elbe; Gemma Buckland‐Merrett. 2017. Global Challengesjournal articleCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Essential Regulatory LaboratoriesCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Expert-curated outbreak reportsCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 3)
- FluNet platformCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- GISAIDCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- The International Health Regulations: The Governing Framework for Global Health SecurityLAWRENCE O. GOSTIN; REBECCA KATZ. 2016. The Milbank Quarterlyjournal articleCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- Optimizing global genomic surveillance for early detection of emerging SARS-CoV-2 variantsHaogao Gu. 2026. Nature Communicationsjournal articleCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- Sustained detection of type 2 poliovirus in London sewage between February and July, 2022, by enhanced environmental surveillanceDimitra Klapsa; Thomas Wilton; Andrew Zealand; et al. 2022. The Lancetjournal articleCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- Laboratory Response Network (LRN)Cited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Link-Gelles et al., 2022Cited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Presence of SARS-Coronavirus-2 RNA in Sewage and Correlation with Reported COVID-19 Prevalence in the Early Stage of the Epidemic in The NetherlandsGertjan Medema. 2020. Environmental Science & Technology Lettersjournal articleCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- The Global Public Health Intelligence Network and Early Warning Outbreak DetectionEric Mykhalovskiy; Lorna Weir. 2006. Canadian Journal of Public Healthjournal articleCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Nextstrain, November 2025Cited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- Implementing wastewater surveillance for viral pathogens: lessons learned from SARS-CoV-2, monkeypox virus, norovirus and influenza A virusesAidan M. Nikiforuk; Muhammad Zohaib Anwar; James Kwan; et al. 2026. npj Clean Waterjournal articleCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- resolution WHA77.17Cited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
- vaccine composition recommendations twice yearlyCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 3); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 4)
- WAHIS animal disease reportingCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- Wastewater surveillanceCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- International Health Regulations (2005), consolidated text including amendments adopted in 2014, 2022 and 2024World Health Organization. 2026. World Health OrganizationCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 1); Outbreak Detection and Surveillance (passage 2)
- One healthWorld Health Organization. 2026. World Health OrganizationCited in: Outbreak Detection and Surveillance
Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
References
- AI and the Future of Medical Countermeasures to Protect Against Biological ThreatsAmesh A. Adalja. 2026. Open Forum Infectious Diseasesjournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- ASPRCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- ASPR TRACIECited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- BARDACited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- Battelle, 2017Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Blueprint Biosecurity, 2025Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Far-UVC light (222 nm) efficiently and safely inactivates airborne human coronavirusesManuela Buonanno; David Welch; Igor Shuryak; et al. 2020. Scientific Reportsjournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Buonanno et al., 2024Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- CDC Influenza AntiviralsCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- CDC/NIOSH GUVCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 3); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 4)
- CDC/NIOSH Ventilation FAQCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 3)
- CEPICited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- ClinicalTrials.gov, OCU500Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- The Age of AI in the Life SciencesNational Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. National Academies PressCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- Far-UVC (222 nm) efficiently inactivates an airborne pathogen in a room-sized chamberEwan Eadie; Waseem Hiwar; Louise Fletcher; et al. 2022. Scientific Reportsjournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 3)
- X post on pathogen-agnostic environmental controls and PPEKevin Esvelt. 2026. Xsocial media postCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Executive Order 14001: A Sustainable Public Health Supply ChainExecutive Office of the President. 2021. Federal RegistergovernmentCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- FDACited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- FDACited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- FDACited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- FDA Animal RuleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- FDA COVID-19 DrugsCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- FDA EUA FAQCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- FDA Safety CommunicationCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- FDA Smallpox PreparednessCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- GAO, 2021Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Assessing the safety of new germicidal far‐UVC technologiesMaximilian Görlitz; Lennart Justen; Patrick J. Rochette; et al. 2023. Photochemistry and Photobiologyjournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- National Strategy for a Resilient Public Health Supply ChainHHS ASPR. 2021. U.S. Department of Health and Human ServicesreportCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- HHS OIG, November 2023Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Optimal design and planning of supply chains for viral vectors and RNA vaccinesDauda Ibrahim; Zoltán Kis; Kyungjae Tak; et al. 2022. Computer Aided Chemical Engineeringbook chapterCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- How to Defend Against AI-Designed VirusesJason T. Kaelber. 2026. War on the RocksopinionCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Kaidzu et al., 2021Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Pandemic-response adenoviral vector and RNA vaccine manufacturingZoltán Kis; Kyungjae Tak; Dauda Ibrahim; et al. 2022. npj Vaccinesjournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Applications of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation disinfection in health care facilities: Effective adjunct, but not stand-alone technologyFarhad Memarzadeh; Russell N. Olmsted; Judene M. Bartley. 2010. American Journal of Infection Controljournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Strengthening Preparedness Against Novel Biological Threat Agents Enabled Through Artificial Intelligence and Other Emerging TechnologiesNational Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2026. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and MedicineCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Preparing for a Future of AI-Enabled BiologyNational Academy of Medicine. 2026. National Academy of MedicineCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- NIHCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- NIOSH, 2009Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Harnessing synthetic biology for the future of biosecurityKaren Polizzi. 2026. Imperial College London StorieswebpageCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Germicidal UV Light and Incidence of Acute Respiratory Infection in Long-Term Care for Older AdultsAndrew P. Shoubridge; Amanda Brass; Maria Crotty; et al. 2025. JAMA Internal Medicinejournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Developing Safe and Effective Covid Vaccines — Operation Warp Speed’s Strategy and ApproachMoncef Slaoui; Matthew Hepburn. 2020. New England Journal of Medicinejournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- Sugihara et al., 2025Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Usher, 2021Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
- Global impact of the first year of COVID-19 vaccination: a mathematical modelling studyOliver J. Watson. 2022. The Lancet Infectious Diseasesjournal articleCited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 1); Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense (passage 2)
- Welch et al., 2023Cited in: Medical Countermeasures and Biodefense
Attribution and Biological Forensics
References
- 2022 capstone exercise led by the Robert Koch InstituteCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- Biological Weapons ConventionCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- Chemical Weapons ConventionCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- Dawn Sturgess Inquiry reportCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- letters containing Bacillus anthracis sporesCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics (passage 1); Attribution and Biological Forensics (passage 2)
- National Academy of SciencesCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC)Cited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- ODNI unclassified assessmentCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)Cited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- RAND report on biological weapons attributionCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- UN Secretary-General’s MechanismCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- WHO Scientific Advisory Group for the Origins of Novel Pathogens (SAGO) independent assessmentCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- WHO-China joint studyCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
- World Health OrganizationCited in: Attribution and Biological Forensics
Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
References
- Africa Pathogen Genomics Initiative (Africa PGI)Cited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 1); Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 2)
- Africa PGICited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- Africa PGICited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- called the travel bans travel apartheidCited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- Parliament of South Africa, November 2021Cited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 1); Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 2)
- WHO Joint External Evaluation (JEE)Cited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- WHO Pandemic Agreement’s Pathogen Access and Benefit Sharing (PABS) annexCited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- WHO Pandemic Influenza Preparedness (PIP) FrameworkCited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 1); Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 2)
- WHO, July 2026Cited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security
- WHO, November 2021Cited in: Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 1); Global Surveillance Equity: LMIC Capacity as Collective Security (passage 2)
Part III: The Democratization of Biology
Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
References
- 2023 HHS guidanceCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Confronting risks of mirror lifeKatarzyna P. Adamala. 2024. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 3); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 4); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 5)
- Matter-to-LifeAlfred P. Sloan Foundation. 2025. Alfred P. Sloan FoundationCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- BioBricks RegistryCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2)
- Bulletin of the Atomic ScientistsCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- The changing economics of DNA synthesisRobert Carlson. 2009. Nature Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 3)
- Bioorthogonal information storage in l-DNA with a high-fidelity mirror-image Pfu DNA polymeraseChuyao Fan. 2021. Nature Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Community Biology Biosafety HandbookCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2)
- Prevention Beats Nonproliferation: Addressing the Risks of Mirror LifeMariano-Florentino Cuéllar. 2025. Carnegie Endowment for International PeaceCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Mirror Life and the Case for Adaptive Risk GovernanceDavid R. Gillum. 2026. Health Securityjournal articleCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- EO 14081, 2022Cited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Building Decision Points Into Research's Slipperiest SlopesJohn H. Evans. 2025. Issues in Science and Technologyjournal articleCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- GenspaceCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Global Guidance Framework for the Responsible Use of the Life SciencesCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Synthesis and applications of mirror-image proteinsKatriona Harrison. 2023. Nature Reviews Chemistryjournal articleCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- International Gene Synthesis ConsortiumCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2)
- International Genetically Engineered Machine competitionCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2)
- JHCHS, 2023Cited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Technical Report on Mirror Bacteria: Feasibility and RisksKatarzyna P. Adamala. 2025. Stanford Digital RepositoryCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Evaluation of antibiotic and peptide vaccine strategies for mirror bacterial infectionsKleinman, Torres, and Wang. 2025. bioRxivpreprintCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Evaluation of antibiotic and peptide vaccine strategies for mirror bacterial infectionsKleinman, Torres, and Wang. 2026. eLifereviewed preprintCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- How should ‘mirror life’ research be restricted? Debate heats upMark Peplow. 2025. NaturenewsCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Mirror Biology Dialogues FundMirror Biology Dialogues Fund. 2026. Mirror Biology Dialogues FundCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Mirror Image Biology: Pushing the Envelope in Designing Biological Systems: Proceedings of a WorkshopNational Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2026. National Academies PressCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- NIHCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2)
- Framework for Nucleic Acid Synthesis ScreeningOffice of Science and Technology Policy. 2024. Executive Office of the President of the United StatesCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Why We Won't Fund Research Towards the Creation of Mirror OrganismsRenaissance Philanthropy. 2025. Renaissance PhilanthropyCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- 4.4 Risks from Mirror LifeRice University. 2025. Rice University Digital Scholarship ArchiveCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- 4.4 Risks from Mirror LifeThe Spirit of Asilomar and the Future of Biotechnology summit. 2025. Rice UniversityCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Mirror lifeUK Government Office for Science. 2025. GOV.UKCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Report of the IBC on the ethical issues of synthetic biology: research, development and applicationUNESCO International Bioethics Committee. 2025. UNESCOCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their DestructionUnited Nations. 1972. United Nations Treaty CollectionCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Mirror LifeUnited Nations Scientific Advisory Board. 2026. United Nations Secretary-General's Scientific Advisory BoardCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 3)
- "Mirror Life" is Still a Hypothetical. Here's Why it Should Probably Stay That Way.University of Utah Health. 2024. University of Utah HealthCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Turning mirror-image oligonucleotides into drugs: the evolution of Spiegelmer therapeuticsAxel Vater. 2015. Drug Discovery Todayjournal articleCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 1); Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology (passage 2)
- A synthetic molecular system capable of mirror-image genetic replication and transcriptionZimou Wang. 2016. Nature Chemistryjournal articleCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Total chemical synthesis of a thermostable enzyme capable of polymerase chain reactionWeiliang Xu. 2017. Cell Discoveryjournal articleCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Mirror-image T7 transcription of chirally inverted ribosomal and functional RNAsYuan Xu. 2022. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
- Zakaria et al., 2026Cited in: Synthetic Biology and the Democratization of Biotechnology
DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
References
- 2023 HHS guidanceCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2)
- 2025 RAND report on protecting biological materialsCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Beyond sequence similarity: toward function-based screening of nucleic acid synthesisGary R. Abel Jr; Tessa Alexanian; Craig Bartling; et al. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Evaluating AI-assisted customer verification for synthetic nucleic acid screeningAlejandro Acelas; Hanna Palya; Kevin Flyangolts; et al. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- DNA Synthesis ProductsAnsa Biotechnologies. 2026. Ansa BiotechnologiesCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- April 29, 2024 OSTP Framework for Nucleic Acid Synthesis ScreeningCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3)
- Artificial Intelligence and Biosecurity Issues2026reportCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Australia GroupCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Australia Group Common Control ListsCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Balancing Biotechnology Innovation and Biosecurity: Securing U.S. Leadership in a Global Race2026. U.S. House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, Subcommittee on Investigations and OversightreportCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- A system capable of verifiably and privately screening global DNA synthesisCarsten Baum; Jens Berlips; Walther Chen; et al. 2026. National Science Reviewjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Benchtop DNA synthesizersCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Biological Weapons ConventionCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- BioSecure frameworkCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Biosecurity Modernization and Innovation Act of 2026 (S. 3741)Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3)
- Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) export controlCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Implementing emerging customer screening standards for nucleic acid synthesisSarah R. Carter; Lucas Boldrini; Tessa Alexanian. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Introducing SynthID BioGoogle DeepMind. 2026. Google DeepMind Blogblog postCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- SYNTAX DNA Printing SystemDNA Script. 2026. DNA ScriptCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Assembling unregulated DNA segments bypasses synthesis screening: regulate fragments as select agentsRey Edison; Shay Toner; Kevin M. Esvelt. 2026. Nature Communicationsjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2)
- EU dual-use itemsCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Executive Order 14292 (May 5, 2025)Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 4)
- FASCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- FBI Weapons of Mass Destruction DirectorateCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Guerra et al., 2026, RAND RR-A4999-1Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Guerra, Bulletin, 4 Sep 2026Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- AI-designed viral genomesThomas V. Inglesby; Moritz S. Hanke. 2026. Sciencejournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Common Mechanism for DNA Synthesis ScreeningInternational Biosecurity and Biosafety Initiative for Science. 2026. International Biosecurity and Biosafety Initiative for ScienceCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3)
- International Biosecurity and Biosafety Initiative for Science (IBBIS)Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- International Gene Synthesis ConsortiumCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 4)
- ISO 20688-2:2024Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Kane & Parker, 2024Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Strengthening global biosecurity for synthetic nucleic acid technology: from sequence screening to risk-based governance in the AI eraSebunya Emmanuel Kato; Abigarl Ndudzo; Sarah Olivia Bayiga; et al. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Know Your Customer (KYC)Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 4)
- Inter-tool Analysis of a NIST Dataset for Assessing Baseline Nucleic Acid Sequence ScreeningTyler S. Laird; Kevin Flyangolts; Craig Bartling; et al. 2025. Applied Biosafetyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Leveraging the Federal Select Agent Program to Oversee Nucleic Acids: Volume 2, Potential Benefits and Burdens, Recommendations, and Implementation ConsiderationsMatt Sharkey. 2026. RAND Corporation Research ReportCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Securing Benchtop DNA SynthesizersMax Langenkamp. 2024. Institute for Progresspolicy analysisCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- NIH NSABBCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- NTICited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- NTICited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- eProtein DiscoveryNuclera. 2026. NucleraCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Framework for Nucleic Acid Synthesis ScreeningOffice of Science and Technology Policy. 2024. Executive Office of the President of the United StatesCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2)
- Cotton, Klobuchar Introduce Bill to Establish Federal Biotech Security FrameworkOffice of Senator Tom Cotton. 2026. United States SenateCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- OSTP, 2024Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3)
- RAND’s 2024 report on securing commercial nucleic acid synthesisCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Research Organization Registry (ROR)Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Sample, The Guardian, August 2026Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- An Open Letter in Support of Mandatory Nucleic Acid Synthesis Screening and RecordkeepingScreenDNA coalition (Foundation for American Innovation; Institute for Progress; signatories). 2026. screendna.orgreportCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Screening Framework Guidance for Providers of Synthetic Double-Stranded DNACited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- SecureBio, GPT-6 Astra pre-release assessment, 2026Cited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- SecureDNACited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2)
- Select Agent ProgramCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- significant improvementsCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Function-preserving watermarking of AI-generated proteinsDavid Stutz; Alexander I. Cowen-Rivers; Guillermo Ortiz-Jimenez; et al. 2026. Naturejournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Developing a standard definition for sequences of concernTessa Alexanian. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and BiotechnologyCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Twist BioscienceCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
- Strengthening nucleic acid biosecurity screening against generative protein design toolsBruce J. Wittmann. 2025. Sciencejournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 3)
- The limits of sequence-based biosecurity screening tools in the age of AI-assisted protein designBruce J. Wittmann; Nicole E. Wheeler; Steven T. Murphy; et al. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 1); DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint (passage 2)
- High-throughput synthesis of DNA fragments by molecular self-assembly of overlapping oligonucleotidesZhiguang Wu; Zhengyang Sun; Shuangying Jiang; et al. 2026. Nature Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: DNA Synthesis Screening: The Critical Chokepoint
Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
References
- 2024 DURC/PEPP policyCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- Biological Weapons ConventionCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- biosafety incidents occurCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- CDCCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- funding pauseCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- Gain-of-function (GOF) researchCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- GAO-26-107348Cited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- GISAIDCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- Gryphon Scientific’s 2016 risk assessmentCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- Airborne Transmission of Influenza A/H5N1 Virus Between FerretsSander Herfst; Eefje J. A. Schrauwen; Martin Linster; et al. 2012. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- HHS P3CO FrameworkCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- Imai et al., Nature, 2012Cited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- Implementation of the U.S. Government Policy for Stopping High-Risk Life Sciences ResearchNational Institutes of Health. 2026. NIH Guide for Grants and ContractsCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- NIHCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- NIH NOT-OD-25-127Cited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- NIH NSABBCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- NIH, 2026Cited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- NOT-OD-25-112Cited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- pandemic influenzaCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- Schuerger et al., CSET, 2023Cited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance
- Improving the Safety and Security of Biological ResearchThe White House. 2025. Executive Order 14292Cited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- U.S. Government Policy for Stopping High-Risk Life Sciences ResearchCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
- Voluntary 60-day moratoriumCited in: Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 1); Gain-of-Function Research: Science, Risk, and Governance (passage 2)
Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
References
- 2014 paper in eLifeCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- 2016 U.S. Intelligence Community Worldwide Threat AssessmentCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- 2018 study by Kyrou et al. in Nature BiotechnologyCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- anti-Plasmodium effector genesCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- biosecurity analysesCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Cartagena ProtocolCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Champer et al., 2019Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- chytrid fungus (Scheele et al., 2019)Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Convention on Biological DiversityCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2)
- CRISPR-Cas9 systemCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Decision 14/19 (2018)Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Decision 15/31 (2022)Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Diagne et al., Nature 2021Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Ecological modelingCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Esvelt & Gemmell, PLOS Biology 2017Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2)
- ETC GroupCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- GBIRd (Genetic Biocontrol of Invasive Rodents)Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Hammond et al., 2016Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- insecticide resistance spreading rapidlyCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- introduced into Aedes populationsCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Novel patterns of expression and recruitment of new genes on the t -haplotype, a mouse selfish chromosomeReka K. Kelemen; Marwan Elkrewi; Anna K. Lindholm; et al. 2022. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciencesjournal articleCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Mendelian inheritanceCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- modeling studiesCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Modeling suggestsCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2)
- Nagoya ProtocolCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- National Academies 2016 reportCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2)
- PLOS Genetics 2017Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Predator Free 2050Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Proceedings of the Royal SocietyCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Published in PNAS (2019)Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- spread to sister species through hybridizationCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- Target MalariaCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2)
- terminated all Target Malaria activitiesCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- WHOCited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity
- WHO, December 2025Cited in: Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 1); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 2); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 3); Gene Drives and Environmental Biosecurity (passage 4)
Part IV: AI and Biosecurity
AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
References
- 2025 guidanceCited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- Attention Is All You NeedCited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- The Operational Risks of AI in Large-Scale Biological Attacks: Results of a Red-Team StudyChristopher A. Mouton. 2024. RAND Research ReportCited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- Claude 3 Model CardCited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- Lambert et al., 2025Cited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- Lee et al., 2024Cited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- OpenAI (2024)Cited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- Ouyang et al., 2022, preprintCited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- Research demonstratesCited in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
Recommended reading
- 3Blue1Brown’s neural network seriesRecommended in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- Andrej Karpathy’s tutorialsRecommended in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
- Deep Learning bookRecommended in: AI and Machine Learning Fundamentals
How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
References
- 2023 preprintCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 1); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 2); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 3)
- 2025 GovAI reportCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- 2025 Scale AI/SecureBio preprintCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Developing a Risk-Scoring Tool for Artificial Intelligence-Enabled Biological Design: A Method to Assess the Risks of Using Artificial Intelligence to Modify Select Viral CapabilitiesAdeline E. Williams. 2026. RAND Corporation Research ReportCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- AlphaFoldCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- AlphaFold 3’s biosecurity implicationsCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- AlphaFold/AlphaFold3Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Amodei, 2026Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Anthropic Claude protein-design campaign commentaryAndrew Dunn. 2026. LinkedInwebpageCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Claude accelerates protein design and analytical chemistryAnthropic. 2026. AnthropicwebpageCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Introducing the Life Sciences Verification ProgramAnthropic. 2026. AnthropicwebpageCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Responsible Scaling Policy Version 3.4Anthropic. 2026. AnthropicCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- System Card: Claude Opus 5.5Anthropic. 2026. AnthropicSystem cardCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Anthropic, 2025Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Anthropic, 2026Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Artificial intelligence, pharmaceutical development and dual-use research of concern: a call to actionChristopher Bobier; Daniel J Hurst; John Obeid. 2025. Journal of Medical Ethicsjournal articleCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Genome modelling and design across all domains of life with Evo 2Garyk Brixi; Matthew G. Durrant; Jerome Ku; et al. 2026. Naturejournal articleCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Artificial intelligence and biosecurity: capabilities, threat pathways, and defense-in-depth governanceCandace S. Y. Chan. 2026. arXiv preprintpreprintCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- LLM Novice Uplift on Dual-Use, In Silico Biology TasksChen Bo Calvin Zhang. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 1); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 2); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 3); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 4)
- The Operational Risks of AI in Large-Scale Biological Attacks: Results of a Red-Team StudyChristopher A. Mouton. 2024. RAND Research ReportCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 1); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 2)
- classroom exercise reported in a preprintCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Claude 3 Model CardCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 1); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 2)
- CNASCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Collins, Science Studies, 1974Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Introducing SynthID BioGoogle DeepMind. 2026. Google DeepMind Blogblog postCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- DeepMind blogCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Dev et al., 2026Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- DHS-commissioned RAND studyCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Ellison et al., 2026Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Evo 2Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Federation of American ScientistsCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Google DeepMind, Microsoft, and xAI signed agreementsCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- DeepSeek-R1 incentivizes reasoning in LLMs through reinforcement learningDaya Guo; Dejian Yang; Haowei Zhang; et al. 2025. Naturejournal articleCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- H.R. 3029Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Harmonized Screening ProtocolCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- International AI Safety Report 2026International AI Safety Report. 2026. International AI Safety ReportCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- International Gene Synthesis ConsortiumCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Kane & Parker, 2024Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Generative design of bacteriophages with genome language modelsSamuel H. King. 2026. Sciencejournal articleCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Li, Mazeika, Hendrycks et al., 2024Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Lightman et al., 2024Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Machine Learning of Toxicological Big Data Enables Read-Across Structure Activity Relationships (RASAR) Outperforming Animal Test ReproducibilityThomas Luechtefeld; Dan Marsh; Craig Rowlands; et al. 2018. Toxicological Sciencesjournal articleCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Introducing VCT-v2 — the updated Virology Capabilities TestMak and Götting. 2026. SecureBioblog postCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- METR, 2026Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Strengthening Preparedness Against Novel Biological Threat Agents Enabled Through Artificial Intelligence and Other Emerging TechnologiesNational Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2026. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and MedicineCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Preparing for a Future of AI-Enabled BiologyNational Academy of Medicine. 2026. National Academy of MedicineCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- New York Times, Sept. 10, 2026Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Statement on Biosecurity Risks at the Convergence of AI and the Life SciencesNuclear Threat Initiative. 2025. Nuclear Threat Initiativeorganization statementCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- October 2023 Executive Order 14110Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Office of Science and Technology Policy released the Framework for Nucleic Acid Synthesis ScreeningCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Cotton, Klobuchar Introduce Bill to Establish Federal Biotech Security FrameworkOffice of Senator Tom Cotton. 2026. United States SenateCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Addendum to GPT-6 Astra System Card: GPT-6.1 SolOpenAI. 2026. OpenAI Deployment Safety HubCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- OpenAI (2024)Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 1); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 2); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 3)
- OpenAI reportedCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- OpenAI, 2026Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- OpenAI’s Preparedness Framework v2Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Barriers to Bioweapons: Intangible Obstacles to ProliferationSonia Ben Ouagrham-Gormley. 2012. International Securityjournal articleCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Phuong et al., 2026Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- AI biohazard hype must not divert attention from the real risks we face nowPopescu. 2026. NatureCommentCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Provatas et al., 2026Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- RAND Europe Global Risk Index (2025)Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Righetti, Lukosiute, and Black, GovAI, April 2026Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 1); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 2); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 3)
- SAB/REP/1/26, March 2026Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- SecureBio, GPT-6 Astra pre-release assessment, 2026Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Measuring Mid-2025 LLM-Assistance on Novice Performance in BiologyShen Zhou Hong. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Function-preserving watermarking of AI-generated proteinsDavid Stutz; Alexander I. Cowen-Rivers; Guillermo Ortiz-Jimenez; et al. 2026. Naturejournal articleCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Improving the Safety and Security of Biological ResearchThe White House. 2025. Executive Order 14292Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 1); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 2)
- U.S. Center for AI Standards and Innovation (CAISI)Cited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- UK AI Security InstituteCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Dual use of artificial-intelligence-powered drug discoveryFabio Urbina; Filippa Lentzos; Cédric Invernizzi; et al. 2022. Nature Machine Intelligencejournal articleCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 1); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 2)
- Intrinsic dataset features drive mutational effect prediction by protein language modelsLuiz C. Vieira. 2026. bioRxiv preprintpreprintCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Intelligent assessment: Putting emerging biotechnology threats in contextKathleen M. Vogel. 2013. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientistsjournal articleCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- warned in congressional testimonyCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- warned that AI could make it easierCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- De novo design of protein structure and function with RFdiffusionJoseph L. Watson; David Juergens; Nathaniel R. Bennett; et al. 2023. Naturejournal articleCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- where AI-designed biological agents must be converted into physical materialsCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 1); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 2); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 3)
- Strengthening nucleic acid biosecurity screening against generative protein design toolsBruce J. Wittmann. 2025. Sciencejournal articleCited in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 1); How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk (passage 2)
Recommended reading
- CSETRecommended in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityRecommended in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
- NTI | bioRecommended in: How AI Amplifies Biosecurity Risk
LLMs and Information Hazards
References
- 1975 Asilomar ConferenceCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- 2018 horsepox synthesis paperCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- 2025 GovAI reportCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Responsible Scaling Policy Version 3.4Anthropic. 2026. AnthropicCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Anthropic’s Constitutional AI preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Biosecurity Data Level (BDL) frameworkCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Chandra et al., 2026, preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- LLM Novice Uplift on Dual-Use, In Silico Biology TasksChen Bo Calvin Zhang. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 3); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 4)
- Cheng et al., 2026Cited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- The Operational Risks of AI in Large-Scale Biological Attacks: Results of a Red-Team StudyChristopher A. Mouton. 2024. RAND Research ReportCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 3)
- classroom exercise reported in a preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Claude 3 Model CardCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2)
- Constitutional ClassifiersCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Doyle, 2026Cited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- formally definedCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Frontier Model ForumCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Airborne Transmission of Influenza A/H5N1 Virus Between FerretsSander Herfst; Eefje J. A. Schrauwen; Martin Linster; et al. 2012. Sciencejournal articleCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- highlightedCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- January 2025Cited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- ClashEval: Quantifying the tug-of-war between an LLM’s internal prior and external evidenceKevin Wu; Eric Wu; James Zou. 2024. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 37conference paperCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Li, Mazeika, Hendrycks et al., 2024Cited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- When the Chatbot Leaks: Securing Patient-Facing Medical AI in the Age of Dual-Use Large Language ModelsMadrid-García A, Merino-Barbancho B, Rujas M. 2026. NEJM AIjournal articleCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Introducing VCT-v2 — the updated Virology Capabilities TestMak and Götting. 2026. SecureBioblog postCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Miller, 2024, preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- NIH DURCCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Managing Misuse Risk for Dual-Use Foundation ModelsGaithersburg MD NIST. 2025reportCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- October 2023 Executive Order 14110Cited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- OPCW Annex on ChemicalsCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- OpenAI (2024)Cited in: LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2)
- OpenAI reportedCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- OpenAI’s Model SpecCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- OpenAI’s Preparedness Framework v2Cited in: LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2)
- Research demonstratesCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 3)
- SAB/REP/1/26, March 2026Cited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Review of Anthropic's Chemical and Biological Risk Report: Claude Opus 4.6SecureBio. 2026. SecureBioCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Measuring Mid-2025 LLM-Assistance on Novice Performance in BiologyShen Zhou Hong. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 1); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 2); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 3); LLMs and Information Hazards (passage 4)
- U.S. Center for AI Standards and Innovation (CAISI)Cited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- UK AI Security InstituteCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Boundary Point Jailbreaking: A new way to break the strongest AI defencesUK AI Security Institute. 2026. UK AI Security InstituteCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Virology Capabilities TestCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
- Wintermute et al., 2026, preprintCited in: LLMs and Information Hazards
AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
References
- 2024 Science commentaryCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- 2025 GovAI reportCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- 2025 RAND Delphi studyCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- AI-enabled medical countermeasure developmentCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- AlphaFoldCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- AlphaFold2Cited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- AlphaGenomeCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Avsec et al., Nature, 2026Cited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Biosecurity Data Level (BDL) frameworkCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Genome modelling and design across all domains of life with Evo 2Garyk Brixi; Matthew G. Durrant; Jerome Ku; et al. 2026. Naturejournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- De novo Design of All-atom Biomolecular Interactions with RFdiffusion3Jasper Butcher. 2025. bioRxiv preprintpreprintCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- The Age of AI in the Life SciencesNational Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. National Academies PressCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- Critical Assessment of Protein Structure Prediction (CASP)Cited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- DeepMind’s biosecurity analysisCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- ESM3Cited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- EvolutionaryScale, 2024Cited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- Feldman & Feldman, 2025, workshop paperCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 3)
- Ikonomova et al., 2025Cited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- Generative design of bacteriophages with genome language modelsSamuel H. King. 2026. Sciencejournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- From capability uplift to capability governance: an AI–biosecurity stackLyly Luhachack; Nancy Connell; Kavita Berger. 2026. Frontiers in Microbiologyjournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Nobel Prize in ChemistryCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- Safety first: input screening for protein design toolsPhil Palmer; Nikki Teran; Nicole Wheeler; et al. 2026preprintCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- SecureDNACited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- SecureDNA uses computational methodsCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Spiez CONVERGENCECited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- De novo design of RNA pseudoknots with deep learningJill Townley; Wipapat Kladwang; David Baker; et al. 2026. Sciencejournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- Training code, inference code, and model weights are publicly availableCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Dual use of artificial-intelligence-powered drug discoveryFabio Urbina; Filippa Lentzos; Cédric Invernizzi; et al. 2022. Nature Machine Intelligencejournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 1); AI-Enabled Pathogen Design (passage 2)
- De novo design of protein structure and function with RFdiffusionJoseph L. Watson; David Juergens; Nathaniel R. Bennett; et al. 2023. Naturejournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Strengthening nucleic acid biosecurity screening against generative protein design toolsBruce J. Wittmann. 2025. Sciencejournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- The limits of sequence-based biosecurity screening tools in the age of AI-assisted protein designBruce J. Wittmann; Nicole E. Wheeler; Steven T. Murphy; et al. 2026. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
- Programmable design of synthetic plant immune receptors for pathogen protein recognitionHaocheng Zhu; Dandan Jiang; Qiao Zhang; et al. 2026. Sciencejournal articleCited in: AI-Enabled Pathogen Design
AI for Biosecurity Defense
References
- Frontier large language models and clinical recognition of Category A bioterrorism agents: a cross-sectional analysisRichard C. Armitage. 2026. Global Security: Health, Science and Policyjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- AIxBio: Opportunities to Strengthen Health SecurityAurelia Attal-Juncqua; Anita Cicero; Alex Zhu; et al. 2026. Health Securityjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- BlueDotCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 1); AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 2); AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 3)
- Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI)Cited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- The Age of AI in the Life SciencesNational Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. National Academies PressCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Ready, Set...ID the BiothreatDHS Science and Technology Directorate. 2026. U.S. Department of Homeland Securitygovernment webpageCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- S&T Launches Prize Challenge to Advance AI-Assisted BiodetectionDHS Science and Technology Directorate. 2026. U.S. Department of Homeland Securitygovernment webpageCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Discordant bioinformatic predictions of antimicrobial resistance from whole-genome sequencing data of bacterial isolates: an inter-laboratory studyRonan M. Doyle. 2020. Microbial Genomicsjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Contamination in Low Microbial Biomass Microbiome Studies: Issues and RecommendationsRaphael Eisenhofer; Jeremiah J. Minich; Clarisse Marotz; et al. 2019. Trends in Microbiologyjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- EPIWATCHCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- A real-time early warning system to anticipate respiratory disease outbreaks using transfer learningRaul Garrido-Garcia; Leonardo Clemente; Austin G. Meyer; et al. 2026. Nature Communicationsjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Guerra et al., 2026, RAND RR-A4999-1Cited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- HealthMapCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Assessing computational predictions of antimicrobial resistance phenotypes from microbial genomesKaixin Hu. 2024. Briefings in Bioinformaticsjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- IFP, Scaling Pathogen Detection, 2025Cited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Insilico MedicineCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Bridging antiviral drug discovery with a large language model-powered frameworkBoming Kang; Yang Zhao; Xingyu Chen; et al. 2026. Communications Biologyjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Kraken2Cited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- MetaPhlAnCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- resLens: genomic language models to enhance antibiotic resistance gene detectionMatthew Mollerus. 2026. npj Antimicrobials and Resistancejournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- Nature, 2021Cited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 1); AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 2)
- AMR-GNN: a multi-representation graph neural network framework to enable genomic antimicrobial resistance predictionHoai-An Nguyen. 2026. Nature Communicationsjournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- SecureBio DetectionCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 1); AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 2)
- A Deep Learning Approach to Antibiotic DiscoveryJonathan M. Stokes. 2020. Celljournal articleCited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense
- WHO, 2020Cited in: AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 1); AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 2); AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 3); AI for Biosecurity Defense (passage 4)
Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
References
- Africa CDC Nextstrain instanceCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
- Bhasin, Flyangolts, et al., 2026, preprintCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 1); Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 2)
- Nextstrain: real-time tracking of pathogen evolutionJames Hadfield; Colin Megill; Sidney M Bell; et al. 2018. Bioinformaticsjournal articleCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 1); Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 2)
- Global approaches to infectious disease surveillance and modelingMark P. Khurana; Joseph L.-H. Tsui; Bernardo Gutierrez; et al. 2026. Nature Medicinejournal articleCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
- LANL Biosurveillance GatewayCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
- Pre-symptomatic detection of COVID-19 from smartwatch dataTejaswini Mishra; Meng Wang; Ahmed A. Metwally; et al. 2020. Nature Biomedical Engineeringjournal articleCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 1); Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 2)
- NextstrainCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
- Assignment of epidemiological lineages in an emerging pandemic using the pangolin toolÁine O’Toole; Emily Scher; Anthony Underwood; et al. 2021. Virus Evolutionjournal articleCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 1); Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 2)
- PangolinCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
- Wearable sensor data and self-reported symptoms for COVID-19 detectionGiorgio Quer; Jennifer M. Radin; Matteo Gadaleta; et al. 2020. Nature Medicinejournal articleCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 1); Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics (passage 2)
- Assessment of Prolonged Physiological and Behavioral Changes Associated With COVID-19 InfectionJennifer M. Radin; Giorgio Quer; Edward Ramos; et al. 2021. JAMA Network Openjournal articleCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
- SecureBio DetectionCited in: Digital Biosurveillance: From Wearables to Real-Time Genomics
Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
References
- What Does "Autonomous" Actually Mean in a Wet Lab?Steph Batalis. 2026. Substack — Notes on AI & BiologyessayCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- Autonomous chemical research with large language modelsDaniil A. Boiko; Robert MacKnight; Ben Kline; et al. 2023. Naturejournal articleCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- Cloud Lab Security ConsortiumCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- cloud laboratoriesCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- Culture BiosciencesCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- Achieving AI-Driven Autonomous LaboratoriesU.S. Department of Energy. 2026. DOE Genesis MissioninstitutionalCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- Emerald Cloud LabCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology (passage 1); Cloud Labs and Automated Biology (passage 2)
- Security Considerations at the Intersection of Engineering Biology and Artificial IntelligenceEBRC. 2023. EBRC white paperreportCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- Development of the autonomous lab system to support biotechnology researchFushimi et al. 2025. Scientific Reportsjournal articleCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- Accelerating engineering biology for global resilienceImperial College London / Freemont. 2022. Imperial College London StoriesinstitutionalCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- NSF announces $400M investment in new national network of AI-programmable cloud labsNational Science Foundation. 2026. NSF TIP updateinstitutionalCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- OpenClawCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- parallel to financial sector KYC requirementsCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- RANDCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology (passage 1); Cloud Labs and Automated Biology (passage 2)
- SAB/REP/1/26, March 2026Cited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- SIPRI’s 2025 analysisCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- Smith et al., 2026, preprintCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- SynthegoCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- University biofoundriesCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
- Pandemic preparedness: synthetic biology and publicly funded biofoundries can rapidly accelerate response timeClaudia E. Vickers; Paul S. Freemont. 2022. Nature Communicationsjournal articleCited in: Cloud Labs and Automated Biology
Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
References
- AI Agent Standards InitiativeCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Amodei, 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Anthropic Claude protein-design campaign commentaryAndrew Dunn. 2026. LinkedInwebpageCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Claude accelerates protein design and analytical chemistryAnthropic. 2026. AnthropicwebpageCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Claude discovers a novel enzyme systemAnthropic. 2026. AnthropicwebpageCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Anthropic, 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Anthropic, 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Autonomous chemical research with large language modelsDaniil A. Boiko; Robert MacKnight; Ben Kline; et al. 2023. Naturejournal articleCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Autonomous de novo protein binder design with ClaudeClaude Science. 2026. Anthropictechnical reportCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Debenedetti et al., 2024Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Endpoints analysisCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- A multi-agent system for automating scientific discoveryAli E. Ghareeb; Benjamin Chang; Ludovico Mitchener; et al. 2026. Naturejournal articleCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Better biosecurity monitors for AI agents via protein embeddingsGoodfire. 2026. Goodfire researchblog postCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Accelerating scientific discovery with Co-ScientistJuraj Gottweis; Wei-Hung Weng; Alexander Daryin; et al. 2026. Naturejournal articleCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Toward autonomous science with agentic artificial intelligenceGuo LY, Ting DSJ, Su X, Aliper A, Zhavoronkov A, Ting DSW. 2026. Celljournal articleCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Lee et al., 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts (passage 1); Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts (passage 2)
- Liu et al., 2026, preprintCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts (passage 1); Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts (passage 2)
- METR, 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Reimagining research papers as interactive and reliable AI agentsMiao J, Davis JR, Zhang Y, Pritchard JK, Zou J. 2026. Naturejournal articleCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- MoltbookCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- NIST CAISI, March 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts (passage 1); Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts (passage 2)
- NIST, 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- OpenAI, 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- OpenClawCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- OWASP Top 10 for Agentic ApplicationsCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Phuong et al., 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Provatas et al., 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Request for Information on AI agent securityCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- SecureBio, GPT-6 Astra pre-release assessment, 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Security Considerations for Artificial Intelligence AgentsCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Security Considerations for Multi-agent SystemsCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Smith et al., 2026, preprintCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- The Stack, January 2026Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Tobias & Wahab, 2025Cited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
- Autonomous AI agents discover reverse transcriptases with tandem repeat arraysYoon; Athukoralage; Ameisen; Kauderer-Abrams; Perry; Durrant. 2026. AnthropicpreprintCited in: Autonomous AI Agents in Laboratory Contexts
Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
References
- Amodei, 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- ABC-Bench: An Agentic Bio-Capabilities Benchmark for BiosecurityAndrew Bo Liu. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- AutoRedTeamer: Autonomous Red Teaming with Lifelong Attack IntegrationAndy Zhou; Kevin Wu; Francesco Pinto; Zhaorun Chen; Yi Zeng; Yu Yang; Shuang Yang; Sanmi Koyejo; James Zou; Bo Li. 2025. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 38conference paperCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Claude Fable 5.1 & Claude Mythos 5.1 System CardAnthropic. 2026. Anthropictechnical reportCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Claude Opus 5 System CardAnthropic. 2026. AnthropicCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Improving Fable 5 SafeguardsAnthropic. 2026. AnthropicCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Introducing Claude Fable 5.1 and Claude Mythos 5.1Anthropic. 2026. AnthropicwebpageCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Introducing the Life Sciences Verification ProgramAnthropic. 2026. AnthropicwebpageCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Responsible Scaling Policy Version 3.4Anthropic. 2026. AnthropicCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- System Card: Claude Opus 5.5Anthropic. 2026. AnthropicSystem cardCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Anthropic, 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Baker et al., 2025, preprintCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Towards a Common Standard for Evaluating Frontier AI Safeguards Against Biological MisuseBhuvana Sudarshan. 2026. GovAI Technical ReportCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- The Operational Risks of AI in Large-Scale Biological Attacks: Results of a Red-Team StudyChristopher A. Mouton. 2024. RAND Research ReportCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Dev et al., 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- BioTIER: A Refusal Benchmark for Targeted Biological Risk MitigationEleanor M. Marshall. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Regulation (EU) 2024/1689, Article 55European Parliament and Council. 2024. Official Journal of the European UnionCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Better biosecurity monitors for AI agents via protein embeddingsGoodfire. 2026. Goodfire researchblog postCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- International AI Safety Report 2026International AI Safety Report. 2026. International AI Safety ReportCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Expanding the AI Evaluation Toolbox with Statistical ModelsNIST Center for AI Standards and Innovation. 2026. National Institute of Standards and TechnologyreportCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Korbak et al., 2025, preprintCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- LatchBio, September 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Introducing VCT-v2 — the updated Virology Capabilities TestMak and Götting. 2026. SecureBioblog postCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- METR, 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- NIST AI 800-2 Practices for Automated Benchmark Evaluations of Language ModelsNIST Center for AI Standards and Innovation. 2026. National Institute of Standards and TechnologyCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- NTI | bio and Concordia AI, August 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Addendum to GPT-6 Astra System Card: GPT-6.1 SolOpenAI. 2026. OpenAICited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Addendum to GPT-6 Astra System Card: GPT-6.1 SolOpenAI. 2026. OpenAI Deployment Safety HubCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- GPT-5.6 System CardOpenAI. 2026. OpenAI Deployment Safety HubCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- OpenAI, September 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Pachocki, 2026, essayCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Provatas et al., 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Review of Anthropic's Chemical and Biological Risk Report: Claude Opus 4.6SecureBio. 2026. SecureBioCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- SecureBio, GPT-6 Astra pre-release assessment, 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Measuring Mid-2025 LLM-Assistance on Novice Performance in BiologyShen Zhou Hong. 2026. arXiv preprintCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Evaluating Superhuman Biological CapabilitiesMuthupandiyan. 2026. SecureBioInstitutional essayCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- A StrongREJECT for Empty JailbreaksAlexandra Souly. 2024. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systemsconference paperCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Boundary Point Jailbreaking: A new way to break the strongest AI defencesUK AI Security Institute. 2026. UK AI Security InstituteCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Principles for Evaluating Misuse Safeguards of Frontier AI SystemsUK AI Security Institute Safeguards Team. 2025. UK AI Security InstituteCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
- Wintermute et al., 2026, preprintCited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks (passage 1); Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks (passage 2)
- xAI, September 2026Cited in: Red-Teaming AI Systems for Biosecurity Risks
Part V: Governance and Futures
International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
References
- 1540 CommitteeCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- 2026 eighth sessionCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- 2026 ninth sessionCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3)
- 42 participating countries and the European CommissionCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- Arms Control AssociationCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2)
- Arms Control AssociationCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 5); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 6); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 7); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 8)
- Australia GroupCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- Australia Group Common Control ListsCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)Cited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 5); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 6); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 7); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 8); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 9)
- Biopreparat programCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- Biosecurity LawCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- CBW EventsCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3)
- FAS 1998Cited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- ICRCCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4)
- The Sverdlovsk Anthrax Outbreak of 1979Matthew Meselson. 1994. Sciencejournal articleCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- NTICited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 5)
- NTICited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- PRIFCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- UN ODACited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 5); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 6)
- UN ODA CBMCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 4); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 5); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 6)
- Biological Weapons ConventionUN Office for Disarmament Affairsinstitutional overviewCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2)
- UN Security Council Resolution 1540Cited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- UNIDIRCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3)
- Statement by the Chair of the 1540 CommitteeUnited Nations Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1540. 2025. United Nations Security CouncilCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- UNODA BWC meetingsCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 3)
- UNODA membershipCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention
- VERTICCited in: International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 1); International Governance and the Biological Weapons Convention (passage 2)
The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
References
- Arms Control AssociationCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- Arms Control AssociationCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 1); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 2)
- Chemistry WorldCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- Machine Learning of Toxicological Big Data Enables Read-Across Structure Activity Relationships (RASAR) Outperforming Animal Test ReproducibilityThomas Luechtefeld; Dan Marsh; Craig Rowlands; et al. 2018. Toxicological Sciencesjournal articleCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- OPCWCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- OPCWCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- OPCWCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 1); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 2); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 3); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 4); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 5); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 6)
- OPCWCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- OPCWCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- OPCW Annex on ChemicalsCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 1); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 2)
- OPCW IIT, 2021Cited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 1); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 2)
- OPCW, 2026Cited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- OPCW by the NumbersOrganisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. 2026. Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical WeaponsCited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 1); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 2); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 3); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 4); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 5)
- RUSICited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- SAB/REP/1/26, March 2026Cited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- U.S. Army ACWA, July 2023Cited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW
- UN Press, 2020Cited in: The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 1); The Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW (passage 2)
Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
References
- 2024 DURC/PEPP policyCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- 2025 guidanceCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- A Transformative AI Strategy for EuropeA Transformative AI Strategy for Europe contributors. 2026. Independent expert strategywebpageCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- A Transformative AI Strategy for EuropeA Transformative AI Strategy for Europe contributors. 2026. Independent expert strategytechnical reportCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- A Transformative AI Strategy for EuropeA Transformative AI Strategy for Europe contributors. 2026. Independent expert strategywebpageCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Developing a Risk-Scoring Tool for Artificial Intelligence-Enabled Biological Design: A Method to Assess the Risks of Using Artificial Intelligence to Modify Select Viral CapabilitiesAdeline E. Williams. 2026. RAND Corporation Research ReportCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- All Pandemic Hazards BillCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- ASM Launches Detection to Protection InitiativeAmerican Society for Microbiology. 2026. ASM.orgorganizational press releaseCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Detection to Protection InitiativeAmerican Society for Microbiology. 2026. ASM.orgorganizational initiative webpageCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- America’s Living Library Act of 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Amodei, 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- anchored on LLM risks rather than foundation biological AI models (BAIMs)Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Responsible Scaling Policy Version 3.4Anthropic. 2026. AnthropicCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Anthropic, 2025Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Artificial Intelligence and Biosecurity Issues2026reportCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- B-SPAN Executive BranchCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- B-SPAN Legislative BranchCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Balancing Biotechnology Innovation and Biosecurity: Securing U.S. Leadership in a Global Race2026. U.S. House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, Subcommittee on Investigations and OversightreportCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Biddle, The Intercept, January 2024Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- International, cross-sector collaboration commits nearly $2 billion to build foundational data for AI models to predict and treat diseaseBiohub. 2026. PR Newswirepress releaseCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Biological Weapons ConventionCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- Biosecurity Data Level (BDL) frameworkCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Biosecurity Modernization and Innovation Act of 2026 (S. 3741)Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- National Blueprint for Biodefense (2024 PDF)Bipartisan Commission on Biodefense. 2024. Bipartisan Commission on BiodefensereportCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- The National Blueprint for BiodefenseBipartisan Commission on Biodefense. 2024. Bipartisan Commission on BiodefensereportCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- An Update to The Apollo Program for Biodefense Winning the Race Against Biological ThreatsBipartisan Commission on Biodefense. 2026. Bipartisan Commission on BiodefensereportCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Bipartisan Commission on Biodefense B-SPAN launch, 10 Jul 2024Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- Carter and Butchello, 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- CNN, February 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- The Age of AI in the Life SciencesNational Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. National Academies PressCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- December 2025 EOCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Dettman et al., 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- DoD Biodefense Posture Review, 2023Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- DriveNetsCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- EO 14081, 2022Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- EO 14110Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- EO 14179Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- EU AI ActCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Know your scientist: KYC as biosecurity infrastructureJonathan Feldman. 2026. Frontiers in Microbiologyjournal articleCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Understanding biosafety practitioner perspectivesDavid R. Gillum; Christine Knight; Kathleen M. Vogel. 2025. Politics and the Life Sciencesjournal articleCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- The Missing Dimension in Clinical AI: Making Hidden Values VisibleCarey Goldberg; Ran D. Balicer; Mamatha Bhat; et al. 2026. NEJM AIjournal articleCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Guerra et al., 2026, RAND RR-A4999-1Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Global patterns and gaps in AI policies of national genomics initiativesHazel et al. 2026. npj Digital Public Healthjournal articleCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Heiligenstein, TIME, February 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- US government, Google join Zuckerberg-backed Biohub in $1.8 billion push for AI biology dataKrystal Hu. 2026. Reutersnews articleCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Huang, NVIDIA Blog, March 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- International AI Safety Report 2026International AI Safety Report. 2026. International AI Safety ReportCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- International Network of AI Safety InstitutesCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- January 2025Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- July 2025 AI Action PlanCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Know Your Customer (KYC)Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Distributed Capability, Shared Vulnerability: International Governance of Biosafety and BiosecurityFilippa Lentzos; Gemma Bowsher. 2026. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicinejournal articleCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Lermen, Rogers-Smith, and Ladish, 2024, preprintCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- mSphere, 2025Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Implementation of the U.S. Government Policy for Stopping High-Risk Life Sciences ResearchNational Institutes of Health. 2026. NIH Guide for Grants and ContractsCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Final Report §4.1: Treat Biological Data as a Strategic ResourceNSCEB. 2025. NSCEBreportCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- NIH NOT-OD-25-127Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Managing Misuse Risk for Dual-Use Foundation ModelsGaithersburg MD NIST. 2025reportCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- AI Congressional Mandates, Executive Orders and ActionsNIST. 2026. NISTwebpageCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Noori et al., 2025, preprintCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- NSCEB chapters hubCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- NSCEB Final Report, 2025Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- NTI AIxBio Global ForumCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Nutanix, August 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- October 2023 Executive Order 14110Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- OECD Synthetic Biology, AI and Automation AssessmentCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Office of Pandemic Preparedness and Response PolicyCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Framework for Nucleic Acid Synthesis ScreeningOffice of Science and Technology Policy. 2024. Executive Office of the President of the United StatesCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- Cotton, Klobuchar Introduce Bill to Establish Federal Biotech Security FrameworkOffice of Senator Tom Cotton. 2026. United States SenateCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- OpenAI’s Preparedness Framework v2Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- P.L. 117-328Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Pandemic Accord’s dangerous blind spotCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Pandemic Preparedness Strategy: building our capabilitiesCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Politico, 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- PREVENT Pandemics ActCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- RAND’s 2025 assessment of the Federal Select Agent ProgramCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Reuters, 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- RSP Version 3.0Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Scowcroft Institute, 2025Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- SecureDNACited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Select Agent ProgramCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- Spring 2026 scanCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Function-preserving watermarking of AI-generated proteinsDavid Stutz; Alexander I. Cowen-Rivers; Guillermo Ortiz-Jimenez; et al. 2026. Naturejournal articleCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- Sutskever, 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- Improving the Safety and Security of Biological ResearchThe White House. 2025. Executive Order 14292Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- Turner, 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- U.S. Government Policy for Stopping High-Risk Life Sciences ResearchCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- A call for built-in biosecurity safeguards for generative AI toolsMengdi Wang; Zaixi Zhang; Amrit Singh Bedi; et al. 2025. Nature Biotechnologyjournal articleCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- Global Risk Index for AI-enabled Biological Tools (Public Report)Toby Webster; Richard Moulange; Barbara Del Castello; et al. 2025reportCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 1); Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence (passage 2)
- WHA78.1Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- White House Accord on Super IntelligenceThe White House. 2026. The White HousegovernmentCited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- WHO, 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- WHO, 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
- WHO, 2026Cited in: Policy Frameworks for AI-Bio Convergence
Recommended reading
The Future of Biosecurity
References
- 100 Days MissionCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- A 2022 WHO/World Bank report to the G20Cited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Confronting risks of mirror lifeKatarzyna P. Adamala. 2024. Sciencejournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Society's Resilience to a Total Loss of AgricultureAdin Richards. 2025. arXiv preprintCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- 10 big projects for reducing bio x-riskChris Bakerlee. 2026. Defenses in DepthCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI)Cited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- CSR Biodefense Budget BreakdownCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- CSR Biodefense Budget Breakdown FY26 update, 9 Dec 2025Cited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- CSR Biodefense Budget Breakdown methodology, Dec 2023Cited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- The COVID-19 Pandemic and the $16 Trillion VirusDavid M. Cutler; Lawrence H. Summers. 2020. JAMAjournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Sovereignty, equity, solidarity: progress on the Global Health Emergency CorpsScott F Dowell; Christophe Schmachtel; Abdi Mahamud; et al. 2025. BMJ Global Healthjournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Gates, 2022Cited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- HEPR frameworkCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Offline: Bill Gates and the fate of WHORichard Horton. 2022. The Lancetjournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Information Hazards in BiotechnologyGregory Lewis. 2019. Risk Analysisjournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- METR, 2026Cited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- 29 CFR 1910.134 Respiratory ProtectionOccupational Safety and Health Administration. 1998. Code of Federal RegulationsCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Face mask fit hacks: Improving the fit of KN95 masks and surgical masks with fit alteration techniquesEugenia O'Kelly. 2022. PLOS ONEjournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Pandemic FundCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Resilience and Sustainability TrustCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Sherwood-Randall and McQuade, August 2026Cited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Tips for Managing Personal Protective Equipment in Your Stockpile: Respirator Selection and PurchaseSusan Moore. 2024. NIOSH Science BulletinCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Mirror LifeUnited Nations Scientific Advisory Board. 2026. United Nations Secretary-General's Scientific Advisory BoardCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Pandemic security needs national leadershipMaria D. Van Kerkhove; Chikwe Ihekweazu. 2025. Sciencejournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
- Strengthening nucleic acid biosecurity screening against generative protein design toolsBruce J. Wittmann. 2025. Sciencejournal articleCited in: The Future of Biosecurity
Appendices
Glossary of Biosecurity Terms
References
- Confronting risks of mirror lifeKatarzyna P. Adamala. 2024. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Glossary of Biosecurity Terms
- Biosecurity Data Level (BDL) frameworkCited in: Glossary of Biosecurity Terms
- AI and biosecurity: The need for governanceDoni Bloomfield; Jaspreet Pannu; Alex W. Zhu; et al. 2024. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Glossary of Biosecurity Terms
- Mirror LifeUnited Nations Scientific Advisory Board. 2026. United Nations Secretary-General's Scientific Advisory BoardCited in: Glossary of Biosecurity Terms
Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
References
- 2025 RAND Delphi studyCited in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- 2025 RAND report on protecting biological materialsCited in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Developing a Risk-Scoring Tool for Artificial Intelligence-Enabled Biological Design: A Method to Assess the Risks of Using Artificial Intelligence to Modify Select Viral CapabilitiesAdeline E. Williams. 2026. RAND Corporation Research ReportCited in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- The Operational Risks of AI in Large-Scale Biological Attacks: Results of a Red-Team StudyChristopher A. Mouton. 2024. RAND Research ReportCited in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- DHS-commissioned RAND studyCited in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- To do no harm — and the most good — with AI in health careCarey Beth Goldberg; Laura Adams; David Blumenthal; et al. 2024. Nature Medicinejournal articleCited in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- National Strategy for a Resilient Public Health Supply ChainHHS ASPR. 2021. U.S. Department of Health and Human ServicesreportCited in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- International Health Regulations (2005)Cited in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Framework for Nucleic Acid Synthesis ScreeningOffice of Science and Technology Policy. 2024. Executive Office of the President of the United StatesCited in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- RAND Europe Global Risk Index (2025)Cited in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- RAND’s 2024 report on securing commercial nucleic acid synthesisCited in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
Recommended reading
- 80,000 Hours PodcastRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- ABSA InternationalRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Detection to Protection InitiativeAmerican Society for Microbiology. 2026. ASM.orgorganizational initiative webpageRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- anthropic.comRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- B-SPAN Executive BranchRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- B-SPAN Legislative BranchRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- BARDARecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)Recommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- BioRisk Assessment Models (BioRAMs)Recommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Biosecurity & Pandemic PreparednessRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Biosecurity and BioterrorismRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Biosecurity CentralRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- The National Blueprint for BiodefenseBipartisan Commission on Biodefense. 2024. Bipartisan Commission on BiodefensereportRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Bipartisan Commission on BiodefenseBipartisan Commission on Biodefense. 2026. Bipartisan Commission on BiodefensewebpageRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Reports — Bipartisan Commission on BiodefenseBipartisan Commission on Biodefense. 2026. Bipartisan Commission on BiodefensewebpageRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Category A agentsRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- CDC BMBLRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- cdc.govRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Center for AI Safety: Introduction to AI Safety, Ethics, and SocietyRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Chemical Weapons ConventionRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- CIDRAPRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI)Recommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- csis.orgRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- CSR Biodefense Budget BreakdownRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs (passage 1); Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs (passage 2)
- deepmind.googleRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Ready, Set...ID the BiothreatDHS Science and Technology Directorate. 2026. U.S. Department of Homeland Securitygovernment webpageRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- ELBIRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- EMBO ReportsRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- ETP biosecurity policyRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- executive branch biosecurity policyRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Expert-curated outbreak reportsRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- fao.orgRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Georgetown UniversityRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- GISAIDRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Harvard DBMIRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Health SecurityRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Health Security Net, archivedRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Introduction to AI Safety, Ethics, and SocietyDan Hendrycks. 2024Recommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- HHS AI Use Case InventoryRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- HHS P3CO FrameworkRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- iarpa.govRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- ICTVRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Introduction to AI Safety, Ethics, and SocietyRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs (passage 1); Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs (passage 2)
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- longtermresilience.orgRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- MITRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- NatureRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- NCBI GenBankRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- NextstrainRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- NTIRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs (passage 1); Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs (passage 2)
- openai.comRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Our World in DataRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Pathogen Genomics for Public HealthRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- PDB (Protein Data Bank)Recommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- PNASRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- rand.orgRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- rand.org/meselsonRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- safe.aiRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- ScienceRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Select Agent ProgramRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Stanford CISACRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- Stat NewsRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- The LancetRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- The ScientistRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- This Week in VirologyRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- usamriid.health.milRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- ViralZoneRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- WHO Laboratory Biosafety Manual (4th Edition)Recommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- woah.orgRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
- World Health OrganizationRecommended in: Biosecurity Resources: Books, Reports, Agencies, and Discovery Hubs
Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
Recommended reading
- 80,000 Hours Job BoardRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- AAAS S&T Policy FellowshipRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- BARDARecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- Biosecurity & Pandemic PreparednessRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- Biosecurity CentralRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- CDCRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- Chatham HouseRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- Congress guideRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- Council on Foreign RelationsRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- CSETRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- csis.orgRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- DHSRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- DoDRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- ELBIRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- ETP biosecurity policyRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles (passage 1); Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles (passage 2)
- executive branch biosecurity policyRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- fellowship databaseRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- Georgetown UniversityRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- Gryphon Scientific (now Deloitte)Recommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- Horizon FellowshipRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- iarpa.govRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- iGEM FoundationRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- Know Your Customer (KYC)Recommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- Mid-Career Biodefense Bootcamp FellowshipRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- MIT Synthetic Biology (Dept. of Biological Engineering)Recommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- NTIRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- rand.orgRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- Schmidt SciencesRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- SecureBioRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- Stanford CISACRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- State DepartmentRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
- Wellcome TrustRecommended in: Building a Biosecurity Career: Federal Agencies, Fellowships, and AI-Bio Roles
Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
References
- 11,000 deathsCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- 7 million confirmed deathsCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- accidentally shippedCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Australia GroupCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- BiopreparatCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Bioterrorism Rapid Response and Advanced Technology (BRRAT) laboratoryCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- CDC MMWR, 2024Cited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- CDC reports 71 total human A(H5) cases in the U.S. since February 2024Cited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- CDC, January 2025Cited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Dr. Bruce IvinsCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Duelfer Report (2004)Cited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Federation of American Scientists, citing UNSCOMCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Food and Agriculture Organization declared rinderpest eradicatedCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- forgotten vials of smallpoxCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- GlobalSecurity.orgCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- International Gene Synthesis ConsortiumCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Ken AlibekCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- letters containing Bacillus anthracis sporesCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- May 8, 1980Cited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- The Sverdlovsk Anthrax Outbreak of 1979Matthew Meselson. 1994. Sciencejournal articleCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes (passage 1); Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes (passage 2)
- National Academy of SciencesCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Office of Science and Technology Policy released the Framework for Nucleic Acid Synthesis ScreeningCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- official inquiryCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- outbreakCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- The Reemergent 1977 H1N1 Strain and the Gain-of-Function DebateMichelle Rozo; Gigi Kwik Gronvall. 2015. mBiojournal articleCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- SecureDNACited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- Select Agent ProgramCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- spread into the communityCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- technician had removed a clogged air filterCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes (passage 1); Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes (passage 2)
- The 2005 International Health RegulationsCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
- USDA confirmed H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza in dairy cattleCited in: Case Studies in Biosecurity Failures and Successes
Course Syllabus Template
Recommended reading
- Responsible Scaling Policy Version 3.4Anthropic. 2026. AnthropicRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- Biotechnology Research in an Age of TerrorismRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- The Operational Risks of AI in Large-Scale Biological Attacks: Results of a Red-Team StudyChristopher A. Mouton. 2024. RAND Research ReportRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- evolved through distinct erasRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- Global Guidance Framework for the Responsible Use of the Life SciencesRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- Johns Hopkins Center for Health SecurityRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- Model Evaluation for Extreme RisksRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI) BiosecurityRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template
- Toxic Terror: Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical and Biological WeaponsRecommended in: Course Syllabus Template